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{{Short description|Visual representation of the structure of an argument}}[[File:Argument Map.png|thumb|A schematic argument map showing a contention (or conclusion), supporting arguments and objections, and an inference objection]]
{{InfoMaps}}
An '''argument map''' or '''argument diagram''' is a visual representation of the structure of an [[argument]]. An argument map typically includes all the key components of the argument, traditionally called the ''[[Logical consequence|conclusion]]'' and the ''[[premise]]s'', also called ''contention'' and ''[[Reason (argument)|reason]]s''.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|1991|pp=49–90}}</ref> Argument maps can also show [[co-premise]]s, [[Objection (argument)|objection]]s, [[counterargument]]s, [[rebuttal]]s, and [[Lemma (logic)|lemma]]s. There are different styles of argument map but they are often functionally equivalent and represent an argument's individual claims and the relationships between them.

Argument maps are commonly used in the context of teaching and applying [[critical thinking]].<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Davies|2012}}; {{harvnb|Facione|2016|pp=88–112}}; {{harvnb|Fisher|2004}}; {{harvnb|Kelley|2014|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Kunsch|Schnarr|van Tyle|2014}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2013|p=10}}; {{harvnb|van Gelder|2015}}</ref> The purpose of mapping is to uncover the logical structure of arguments, identify unstated assumptions, evaluate the support an argument offers for a conclusion, and aid understanding of debates. Argument maps are often designed to support deliberation of issues, ideas and arguments in [[wicked problem]]s.<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Culmsee|Awati|2013}}; {{harvnb|Hoffmann|Borenstein|2013}}; {{harvnb|Metcalfe|Sastrowardoyo|2013}}; Ricky Ohl, [https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA360 "Computer supported argument visualisation: modelling in consultative democracy around wicked problems"], in {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014|pp=361–380}}</ref>

An argument map is not to be confused with a [[concept map]] or a [[mind map]], two other kinds of [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|node–link diagram]] which have different constraints on nodes and links.<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Davies|2010}}; {{harvnb|Hunter|2008}}; {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014|pp=vii–x, 4}}</ref>

==Key features==
A number of different kinds of argument maps have been proposed but the most common, which Chris Reed and Glenn Rowe called the ''standard diagram'',<ref name="ReedRowe64">{{harvnb|Reed|Rowe|2007|p=64}}</ref> consists of a [[tree structure]] with each of the reasons leading to the conclusion. There is no consensus as to whether the conclusion should be at the top of the tree with the reasons leading up to it or whether it should be at the bottom with the reasons leading down to it.<ref name="ReedRowe64"/> Another variation diagrams an argument from left to right.<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Walton|2013|pp=18–20}}</ref>

According to [[Douglas N. Walton]] and colleagues, an argument map has two basic components: "One component is a set of circled numbers arrayed as points. Each number represents a proposition (premise or conclusion) in the argument being diagrammed. The other component is a set of lines or arrows joining the points. Each line (arrow) represents an inference. The whole network of points and lines represents a kind of overview of the reasoning in the given argument..."<ref>{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=2}}</ref> With the introduction of software for producing argument maps, it has become common for argument maps to consist of boxes containing the actual propositions rather than numbers referencing those propositions.

There is disagreement on the terminology to be used when describing argument maps,<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|1991|pp=49–90}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Rowe|2007}}</ref> but the ''standard diagram'' contains the following structures:

'''Dependent premises''' or '''co-premises''', where at least one of the joined premises requires another premise before it can give support to the conclusion: An argument with this structure has been called a ''linked'' argument.<ref>{{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=19}}</ref>

[[File:Dependent premises.jpg|thumb|centre|100px|Statements 1 and 2 are dependent premises or co-premises.]]

'''Independent premises''', where the premise can support the conclusion on its own: Although independent premises may jointly make the conclusion more convincing, this is to be distinguished from situations where a premise gives no support unless it is joined to another premise. Where several premises or groups of premises lead to a final conclusion the argument might be described as ''convergent''. This is distinguished from a ''divergent'' argument where a single premise might be used to support two separate conclusions.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|1991|pp=91–110}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=20}}</ref>

[[File:Independent premises.jpg|thumb|centre|150px|Statements 2, 3, 4 are independent premises.]]

'''Intermediate conclusions''' or '''sub-conclusions''', where a claim is supported by another claim that is used in turn to support some further claim, i.e. the final conclusion or another intermediate conclusion: In the following diagram, statement '''4''' is an intermediate conclusion in that it is a conclusion in relation to statement '''5''' but is a premise in relation to the final conclusion, i.e. statement '''1'''. An argument with this structure is sometimes called a ''complex'' argument. If there is a single chain of claims containing at least one intermediate conclusion, the argument is sometimes described as a ''serial'' argument or a ''chain'' argument.<ref>{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950|pp=18–19}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|pp=3–8}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2010|pp=19–21}}</ref>

[[File:Intermediate conclusion.jpg|thumb|centre|150px|Statement 4 is an intermediate conclusion or sub-conclusion.]]

Each of these structures can be represented by the equivalent "box and line" approach to argument maps. In the following diagram, the ''contention'' is shown at the top, and the boxes linked to it represent supporting ''reasons'', which comprise one or more ''premises''. The green arrow indicates that the two ''reasons'' support the ''contention'':

[[File:A box and line diagram.png|thumb|center|A box and line diagram]]

Argument maps can also represent counterarguments. In the following diagram, the two ''objections'' weaken the ''contention'', while the ''reasons'' support the ''premise'' of the objection:

[[File:A sample argument using objections.png|thumb|center|A sample argument using objections]]

==Representing an argument as an argument map==

===Diagramming written text===
A written text can be transformed into an argument map by following a sequence of steps. [[Monroe Beardsley]]'s 1950 book ''Practical Logic'' recommended the following procedure:<ref name="Beardsley">{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950}}</ref>
#Separate statements by brackets and number them.
#Put circles around the logical indicators.
#Supply, in parentheses, any logical indicators that are left out.
#Set out the statements in a diagram in which arrows show the relationships between statements.

[[File:Diagram using Beardsley's procedure.jpg|thumb|right|100px|A diagram of the example from Beardsley's ''Practical Logic'']]

Beardsley gave the first example of a text being analysed in this way:

:Though <span style="color:red;">① [</span>people who talk about the "social significance" of the arts don’t like to admit it<span style="color:red;">]</span>, <span style="color:red;">② [</span>music and painting are bound to suffer when they are turned into mere vehicles for propaganda<span style="color:red;">]</span>. <span style="width:100%; border:solid 2px blue; padding-left:5px; padding-right:5px; border-radius:25px;">For</span> <span style="color:red;">③ [</span>propaganda appeals to the crudest and most vulgar feelings<span style="color:red;">]</span>: <span style="color:red;">(for)</span> <span style="color:red;">④ [</span>look at the academic monstrosities produced by the official Nazi painters<span style="color:red;">]</span>. What is more important, <span style="color:red;">⑤ [</span>art must be an end in itself for the artist<span style="color:red;">]</span>, <span style="width:100%; border:solid 2px blue; padding-left:5px; padding-right:5px; border-radius:25px;">because</span> <span style="color:red;">⑥ [</span>the artist can do the best work only in an atmosphere of complete freedom<span style="color:red;">]</span>.

Beardsley said that the conclusion in this example is statement ②. Statement ④ needs to be rewritten as a declarative sentence, e.g. "Academic monstrosities [were] produced by the official Nazi painters." Statement ① points out that the conclusion isn't accepted by everyone, but statement ① is omitted from the diagram because it doesn't support the conclusion. Beardsley said that the logical relation between statement ③ and statement ④ is unclear, but he proposed to diagram statement ④ as supporting statement ③.

[[File:Using Harrell's procedure.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A box and line diagram of Beardsley's example, produced using Harrell's procedure]]

More recently, philosophy professor Maralee Harrell recommended the following procedure:<ref>{{harvnb|Harrell|2010|p=28}}</ref>
#Identify all the claims being made by the author.
#Rewrite them as independent statements, eliminating non-essential words.
#Identify which statements are premises, sub-conclusions, and the main conclusion.
#Provide missing, implied conclusions and implied premises. (This is optional depending on the purpose of the argument map.)
#Put the statements into boxes and draw a line between any boxes that are linked.
#Indicate support from premise(s) to (sub)conclusion with arrows.

===Diagramming as thinking===
Argument maps are useful not only for representing and analyzing existing writings, but also for thinking through issues as part of a [[Problem structuring methods|problem-structuring process]] or [[writing process]].<ref>This is related to the distinction between "knowledge telling" and "knowledge transforming" in [[composition studies]]: see, for example, {{harvnb|Chryssafidou|2014|pp=38–39, 413}}</ref> The use of such argument analysis for thinking through issues has been called "reflective argumentation".<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Hoffmann|Borenstein|2013}}; {{harvnb|Hoffmann|2016}}; {{harvnb|Hoffmann|2018}}</ref>

An argument map, unlike a [[decision tree]], does not tell how to make a decision, but the process of choosing a [[Coherentism|coherent]] position (or [[reflective equilibrium]]) based on the structure of an argument map can be represented as a decision tree.<ref>See section 4.2, "Argument maps as reasoning tools", in {{harvnb|Brun|Betz|2016}}</ref>

==History==

===The philosophical origins and tradition of argument mapping===
[[File:Whatley.png|thumb|From Whately's Elements of Logic p467, 1852 edition]]
In the ''Elements of Logic'', published in 1826 and issued in many subsequent editions,<ref>{{harvnb|Whately|1834}} (first published 1826)</ref> Archbishop [[Richard Whately]] gave probably the first form of an argument map, introducing it with the suggestion that "many students probably will find it a very clear and convenient mode of exhibiting the logical analysis of the course of argument, to draw it out in the form of a Tree, or Logical Division".

However, the technique did not become widely used, possibly because for complex arguments, it involved much writing and rewriting of the premises.

[[File:Wigmore chart.png|thumb|Wigmore evidence chart, from 1905]]
Legal philosopher and theorist [[John Henry Wigmore]] produced maps of legal arguments using numbered premises in the early 20th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1913}}</ref> based in part on the ideas of 19th century philosopher [[Henry Sidgwick]] who used lines to indicate relations between terms.<ref>{{harvnb|Goodwin|2000}}</ref>

===Anglophone argument diagramming in the 20th century===
Dealing with the failure of [[Formal system|formal]] reduction of informal argumentation, English speaking [[argumentation theory]] developed diagrammatic approaches to informal reasoning over a period of fifty years.

[[Monroe Beardsley]] proposed a form of argument diagram in 1950.<ref name="Beardsley"/> His method of marking up an argument and representing its components with linked numbers became a standard and is still widely used. He also introduced terminology that is still current describing ''convergent'', ''divergent'' and ''serial'' arguments.

[[File:Toulmindiag.png|thumb|A [[Toulmin method|Toulmin argument diagram]], redrawn from his 1959 ''Uses of Argument'']]
[[File:Toulmingeneral.png|thumb|A generalised Toulmin diagram]]
[[Stephen Toulmin]], in his groundbreaking and influential 1958 book ''The Uses of Argument'',<ref>{{harvnb|Toulmin|2003}} (first published 1958)</ref> identified several elements to an argument which have been generalized. The [[Toulmin method|Toulmin diagram]] is widely used in educational critical teaching.<ref name="Simon06">{{harvnb|Simon|Erduran|Osborne|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Böttcher|Meisert|2011}}; {{harvnb|Macagno|Konstantinidou|2013}}</ref> Whilst Toulmin eventually had a significant impact on the development of [[informal logic]] he had little initial impact and the Beardsley approach to diagramming arguments along with its later developments became the standard approach in this field. Toulmin introduced something that was missing from Beardsley's approach. In Beardsley, "arrows link reasons and conclusions (but) no support is given to the implication itself between them. There is no theory, in other words, of inference distinguished from logical deduction, the passage is always deemed not controversial and not subject to support and evaluation".<ref>{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=8}}</ref> Toulmin introduced the concept of [[Warrant (rhetoric)|''warrant'']] which "can be considered as representing the reasons behind the inference, the backing that authorizes the link".<ref>{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|p=9}}</ref>

Beardsley's approach was refined by Stephen N. Thomas, whose 1973 book ''Practical Reasoning In Natural Language''<ref>{{harvnb|Thomas|1997}} (first published 1973)</ref> introduced the term ''linked'' to describe arguments where the premises necessarily worked together to support the conclusion.<ref name="SnoeckHenkemans">{{harvnb|Snoeck Henkemans|2000|p=453}}</ref> However, the actual distinction between dependent and independent premises had been made prior to this.<ref name="SnoeckHenkemans"/> The introduction of the linked structure made it possible for argument maps to represent missing or "hidden" premises. In addition, Thomas suggested showing reasons both ''for'' and ''against'' a conclusion with the reasons ''against'' being represented by dotted arrows. Thomas introduced the term ''argument diagram'' and defined ''basic reasons'' as those that were not supported by any others in the argument and the ''final conclusion'' as that which was not used to support any further conclusion.

[[File:Scrivendiag.png|thumb|Scriven's argument diagram. The explicit premise 1 is conjoined with additional unstated premises a and b to imply 2.]]
[[Michael Scriven]] further developed the Beardsley-Thomas approach in his 1976 book ''Reasoning''.<ref>{{harvnb|Scriven|1976}}</ref> Whereas Beardsley had said "At first, write out the statements...after a little practice, refer to the statements by number alone"<ref>{{harvnb|Beardsley|1950|p=21}}</ref> Scriven advocated clarifying the meaning of the statements, listing them and then using a tree diagram with numbers to display the structure. Missing premises (unstated assumptions) were to be included and indicated with an alphabetical letter instead of a number to mark them off from the explicit statements. Scriven introduced counterarguments in his diagrams, which Toulmin had defined as rebuttal.<ref>{{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007|pp=10–11}}</ref> This also enabled the diagramming of "balance of consideration" arguments.<ref>{{harvnb|van Eemeren|Grootendorst|Snoeck Henkemans|Blair|1996|p=175}}</ref>

In 1998 a series of large-scale argument maps released by [[Robert E. Horn]] stimulated widespread interest in argument mapping.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|1999}}; {{harvnb|Horn|1998}}; Robert E. Horn, [https://web.archive.org/web/20040612173036/http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/topic/arg/artclCmptrSpArgmttn.pdf "Infrastructure for navigating interdisciplinary debates: critical decisions for representing argumentation"], in {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=165–184}}</ref>

===Development of computer-supported argument visualization===
[[File:Structured online debate – Kialo debate tree.png|thumb|The argument map tree schema of [[Kialo]] with an example path through it: all Con-argument boxes and some Pros were emptied to illustrate an example path.<ref>{{harvnb|Bolton|Calderwood|Christensen|Kafrouni|2020}}</ref>]]
[[File:Collective determinination of argument impact.png|thumb|A partial argument tree with claims and impact votes for arguments illustrates one form of collective determination of argument weights that is based on equal-weight user voting.<ref>{{harvnb|Durmus|Ladhak|Cardie|2019}}</ref> There is research into how to efficiently calculate the winning arguments or arguments' weights and the overall conclusions in digital argument map systems.<ref>{{harvnb|Young|2021}}</ref>]]
[[Human–computer interaction]] pioneer [[Douglas Engelbart]], in a famous 1962 technical report on [[intelligence augmentation]], envisioned in detail something like argument-mapping software as an integral part of future [[Neuroenhancement#Software and media|intelligence-augmenting computer interfaces]]:<ref>{{harvnb|Engelbart|1962}}; For an account of Engelbart's place in the history of computer-supported argument visualization, see, e.g., Simon Buckingham Shum, [http://simon.buckinghamshum.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/03/VisualizingArgumentation-Roots.pdf "The roots of computer supported argument visualization"], in {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=3–24}}</ref> {{Quote|You usually think of an argument as a serial sequence of steps of reason, beginning with known facts, assumptions, etc., and progressing toward a conclusion. Well, we do have to think through these steps serially, and we usually do list the steps serially when we write them out because that is pretty much the way our papers and books have to present them—they are pretty limiting in the symbol structuring they enable us to use.&nbsp;... To help us get better comprehension of the structure of an argument, we can also call forth a schematic or graphical display. Once the antecedent-consequent links have been established, the computer can automatically construct such a display for us.|source=Douglas Engelbart, "Augmenting human intellect: a conceptual framework" (1962)}}

In the middle to late 1980s, [[hypertext]] [[software application]]s that supported argument visualization were developed, including [[NoteCards]] and [[gIBIS]]; the latter generated an on-screen graphical hypertextual map of an [[issue-based information system]], a model of argumentation developed by Werner Kunz and [[Horst Rittel]] in the 1970s.<ref>{{harvnb|Conklin|Begeman|1988}}, on [[gIBIS]]; {{harvnb|Halasz|1988}}, on [[NoteCards]]; {{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003|pp=14–15}}, on the place of both in the history of computer-supported argument visualization</ref> In the 1990s, [[Tim van Gelder]] and colleagues developed a series of software applications that permitted an argument map's premises to be fully stated and edited in the diagram, rather than in a legend.<ref>{{harvnb|van Gelder|2007}}</ref> Van Gelder's first program, Reason!Able, was superseded by two subsequent programs, bCisive and Rationale.<ref>{{harvnb|Berg|van Gelder|Patterson|Teppema|2009}}</ref>

Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, many other software applications were developed for argument visualization. By 2013, more than 60 such software systems existed.<ref>{{harvnb|Walton|2013|p=11}}</ref> In a 2010 survey of computer-supported argumentation, Oliver Scheuer and colleagues noted that one of the differences between these software systems is whether collaboration is supported.<ref name="Scheuer10">{{harvnb|Scheuer|Loll|Pinkwart|McLaren|2010}}</ref> In their survey, single-user argumentation systems included Convince Me, iLogos, LARGO, Athena, [[Araucaria (software)|Araucaria]], and Carneades; small group argumentation systems included Digalo, QuestMap, [[Compendium (software)|Compendium]], Belvedere, and AcademicTalk; community argumentation systems included [[Debategraph]] and [[Collaboratorium]].<ref name="Scheuer10"/> [[Free and open source software|Free and open source]] structured argumentation systems include [[#Argdown|Argdown]]<ref name=Argdown/> and [[Argüman]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pührer|2017}}</ref>

As of 2020, the commercial website [[Kialo]] is the most widely adopted argumentation-based deliberation system with an argument-map interface.<ref>{{harvnb|De Liddo|Strube|2021}}</ref> {{Clarify|date=February 2024|reason=This sentence is ungrammatical and not entirely understandable; please improve it. |text=On Kialo, users can vote on the overall debate topic as well as on individual claims to express their perspectives or conclusions, with the [[Explanation|rationale]] (i.e. the main causal arguments) why they voted on the veracity of the thesis as they did not being captured if these reasons are not located as claims beneath the argument and have also been rated by the same users.}}<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|Sun|Beck|2019}}</ref> {{Clarify|date=February 2024|reason=What does "This represents" refer to? |text=This represents Kialo's algorithm of collective determination of argument weights and theses' veracities,}}<ref>{{harvnb|Durmus|Ladhak|Cardie|2019}}</ref> which has a plurality component in that the user can also switch between the perspectives of specific users and some groups of users (e.g. supporters and opponents of a thesis).<ref>{{harvnb|Beck|Neupane|Carroll|2019}}</ref> In the context of historical-political education, researcher Oliver Held identified at least five key components of historical judgment that can be implemented easily in Kialo: perspectivity, levels of relevance, interdependence, multi-causality and assessments.<ref>{{harvnb|Held|2022}}</ref>

==Applications==
Argument maps have been applied in many areas, but foremost in educational, academic and business settings, including [[design rationale]].<ref name="Applications">{{harvnb|Kirschner|Buckingham Shum|Carr|2003}}; {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014}}</ref> Argument maps are also used in [[forensic science]],<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Bex|2011}}</ref> [[law]], and [[artificial intelligence]].<ref>For example: {{harvnb|Verheij|2005}}; {{harvnb|Reed|Walton|Macagno|2007}}; {{harvnb|Walton|2013}}</ref> It has also been proposed that argument mapping has a great potential to improve how we understand and execute democracy, in reference to the ongoing evolution of [[e-democracy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hilbert|2009}}</ref>

===Difficulties with the philosophical tradition===
It has traditionally been hard to separate teaching critical thinking from the philosophical tradition of teaching [[logic]] and method, and most critical thinking textbooks have been written by philosophers. [[Informal logic]] textbooks are replete with philosophical examples, but it is unclear whether the approach in such textbooks transfers to non-philosophy students.<ref name="Simon06" /> There appears to be little statistical effect after such classes. Argument mapping, however, has a measurable effect according to many studies.<ref>{{harvnb|Twardy|2004}}; {{harvnb|Álvarez Ortiz|2007}}; {{harvnb|Harrell|2008}}; Yanna Rider and Neil Thomason, [https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 "Cognitive and pedagogical benefits of argument mapping: LAMP guides the way to better thinking"], in {{harvnb|Okada|Buckingham Shum|Sherborne|2014|pp=113–134}}; {{harvnb|Dwyer|2011}}; {{harvnb|Davies|2012}}</ref> For example, instruction in argument mapping has been shown to improve the critical thinking skills of business students.<ref>{{harvnb|Carrington|Chen|Davies|Kaur|2011}}; {{harvnb|Kunsch|Schnarr|van Tyle|2014}}</ref>

===Evidence that argument mapping improves critical thinking ability===
There is empirical evidence that the skills developed in argument-mapping-based critical thinking courses substantially transfer to critical thinking done without argument maps. Alvarez's meta-analysis found that such critical thinking courses produced gains of around 0.70 [[Standard deviation|SD]], about twice as much as standard critical-thinking courses.<ref>{{harvnb|Álvarez Ortiz|2007|pp=69–70 ''et seq''}}</ref> The tests used in the reviewed studies were standard critical-thinking tests.

==Limitations==
When used with students in school, argument maps have limitations. They can "end up looking overly complex" and can increase [[cognitive load]] beyond what is optimal for learning the course content.<ref name=Nussbaum2012>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2012|pp=125, 133}}</ref> Creating maps requires extensive coaching and feedback from an experienced argument mapper.<ref name=Nussbaum2012/> Depending on the learning objectives, the time spent coaching students to create good maps may be better spent learning the course content instead of learning to diagram.<ref name=Nussbaum2012/> When the goal is to prompt students to consider other perspectives and counterarguments, the goal may be more easily accomplished with other methods such as discussion, [[Rubric (academic)|rubric]]s, and a simple argument framework or simple [[graphic organizer]] such as a vee diagram.<ref name=Nussbaum2012/> To maximize the strengths of argument mapping and minimize its limitations in the classroom requires considering at what point in a [[learning progression]] the potential benefits of argument mapping would outweigh its potential disadvantages.<ref name=Nussbaum2012/>

A 2022 [[security studies]] blog post said that "Kialo's simplicity does pose some weaknesses and limitations, and in general current [computer-supported argument visualization] systems cannot reliably automate {{em|analysis}} or {{em|synthesis}} of arguments in the same way that statistical packages can automate analysis of data".<ref>{{harvnb|Durland|2022}}</ref>

==Standards==

===Argument Interchange Format===
{{main|Argument Interchange Format}}
The Argument Interchange Format, AIF, is an international effort to develop a representational mechanism for exchanging argument resources between research groups, tools, and domains using a semantically rich language.<ref>See the [http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2006/aif_final.pdf AIF original draft description] (2006) and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20161211004201/http://www.argdf.org/source/ArgDF_Ontology.rdfs full AIF-RDF ontology specifications] in [[RDFS]] format.</ref> AIF-RDF is the extended ontology represented in the [[Resource Description Framework]] Schema (RDFS) semantic language. Though AIF is still something of a moving target, it is settling down.<ref>{{harvnb|Bex|Modgil|Prakken|Reed|2013}}</ref>

===Legal Knowledge Interchange Format===
{{main|Legal Knowledge Interchange Format}}
The Legal Knowledge Interchange Format (LKIF)<ref>{{harvnb|Boer|Winkels|Vitali|2008}}</ref> was developed in the European ESTRELLA project<ref>{{cite web |title=Estrella project website |url=http://www.estrellaproject.org/ |website=estrellaproject.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212103522/http://www.estrellaproject.org/ |archive-date=2016-02-12 |access-date=2016-02-24}}</ref> and designed with the goal of becoming a standard for representing and interchanging policy, legislation and cases, including their justificatory arguments, in the legal domain. LKIF builds on and uses the [[Web Ontology Language]] (OWL) for representing concepts and includes a reusable basic ontology of legal concepts.

===Argdown===
Argdown is a [[Markdown]]-inspired [[lightweight markup language]] for complex argumentation.<ref name=Argdown>See {{harvnb|Voigt|2014}}. The Argdown website is [https://argdown.org argdown.org]. Argdown is currently developed as an open source project: {{cite web |url=https://github.com/christianvoigt/argdown |title=christianvoigt/argdown: a simple syntax for complex argumentation |website=[[GitHub]].com |access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref> It is intended for exchanging arguments and argument reconstructions in a universally accessible and highly [[human-readable]] way. The Argdown syntax is accompanied by tools that facilitate coding and transform Argdown documents into argument maps.<ref>Argdown tools include a [[web browser]] [[Sandbox (software development)|sandbox]] editor, an [[Plug-in (computing)|extension]] for [[Visual Studio Code]], and a [[command-line tool]]; see {{cite web |url=https://argdown.org/guide/ |title=Getting started |website=argdown.org |access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Commons category|Argument maps}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Argument technology]]
* [[Argumentation framework]]
* [[Argumentation scheme]]
* [[Bayesian network]]
* [[Collaborative decision-making software]]
* [[Dialogue mapping]]
* [[Flow (policy debate)]]
* [[Informal fallacy]]
* [[Logic and dialectic]]
* [[Logic of argumentation]]
* [[Natural deduction]]{{snd}} a logical system with argument map-like notation
* [[Practical arguments]]
* [[Rhetorical structure theory]]
* [[Semantic tableau]]
* [[v:en:Wikidebate|Wikidebate]]
{{Div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite thesis|type=M.A. thesis |last=Álvarez Ortiz |first=Claudia María |title=Does philosophy improve critical thinking skills? |url=http://images.austhink.com/pdf/Claudia-Alvarez-thesis.pdf |year=2007 |publisher=Department of Philosophy, [[University of Melbourne]] |oclc=271475715 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708000509/http://images.austhink.com/pdf/Claudia-Alvarez-thesis.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-08 }}
* {{cite book |last=Beardsley |first=Monroe C. |author-link=Monroe Beardsley |date=1950 |title=Practical logic |location=New York |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] |oclc=4318971 }} A shorter version was published as ''Thinking Straight''; the most recent edition is: {{cite book |last=Beardsley |first=Monroe C. |author-link=Monroe Beardsley |date=1975 |title=Thinking straight: principles of reasoning for readers and writers |edition=4th |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |publisher=[[Prentice-Hall]] |isbn=978-0139182358 |oclc=1168973 |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingstraight0000bear }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Jordan |last2=Neupane |first2=Bikalpa |last3=Carroll |first3=John M. |date=July 2019 |title=Managing conflict in online debate communities: foregrounding moderators' beliefs and values on Kialo |language=en |journal=[[First Monday (journal)|First Monday]] |volume=24 |issue=7 |doi=10.5210/fm.v24i7.9585 |doi-access=free |url=https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/9585}}
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* {{cite book |last=Verheij |first=Bart |title=Virtual arguments: on the design of argument assistants for lawyers and other arguers |year=2005 |location=The Hague |publisher=T.M.C. Asser Press |series=Information technology & law series |volume=6 |isbn=9789067041904 |oclc=59617214 }}
* {{cite book |last=Voigt |first=Christian |date=2014 |chapter=Argdown and the stacked masonry layout: two user interfaces for non-expert users |editor-last=Parsons |editor-first=Simon |editor2-last=Oren |editor2-first=Nir |editor3-last=Reed |editor3-first=Chris |editor4-last=Cerutti |editor4-first=Federico |title=Computational models of argument: proceedings of COMMA 2014 |series=Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications |volume=266 |issue=Computational Models of Argument |location=Amsterdam |publisher=IOS Press |pages=483–484 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T53YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA483 |isbn=9781614994367 |oclc=894508689 |doi=10.3233/978-1-61499-436-7-483 }}
* {{cite book |last=Walton |first=Douglas N. |author-link=Douglas N. Walton |title=Methods of argumentation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaU0AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |location=Cambridge; New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1107677333 |oclc=830523850 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139600187 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
* {{cite book |last=Whately |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Whately |title=Elements of logic: comprising the substance of the article in the Encyclopædia metropolitana: with additions, &c. |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5mgAAAAAMAAJ |year=1834 |orig-year=1826 |edition=5th |location=London |publisher=B. Fellowes |oclc=1739330 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
* {{cite book |last=Wigmore |first=John Henry |author-link=John Henry Wigmore |title=The principles of judicial proof: as given by logic, psychology, and general experience, and illustrated in judicial trials |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesjudic00wigmgoog |year=1913 |location=Boston |publisher=Little Brown |oclc=1938596 |access-date=2016-02-24}}
* {{cite web |last=Young |first=Anthony P. |date=September 2021 |title=Likes as argument strength for online debate |url=https://argstrength2021.argumentationcompetition.org/papers/ArgStrength2021_paper_8.pdf |website=argstrength2021.argumentationcompetition.org |access-date=2023-06-10}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Barstow |first1=Brendan |last2=Fazio |first2=Lisa |last3=Lippman |first3=Jordan |last4=Falakmasir |first4=Mohammad |last5=Schunn |first5=Christian D. |last6=Ashley |first6=Kevin D. |date=December 2017 |title=The impacts of domain-general vs. domain-specific diagramming tools on writing |journal=International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=671–693 |doi=10.1007/s40593-016-0130-z |s2cid=5567454 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cahill |first1=Ann J. |last2=Bloch-Schulman |first2=Stephen |date=March 2012 |title=Argumentation step-by-step: learning critical thinking through deliberate practice |journal=Teaching Philosophy |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=41–62 |doi=10.5840/teachphil20123514 |url=http://www.elon.edu/u/academics/arts-and-sciences/philosophy/wp-content/uploads/sites/258/2017/10/AJC-step-by-step-article_.pdf }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.philmaps.com/ |title=Philosophy mapped |last=Cullen |first=Simon |website=philmaps.com |date=30 August 2017 |access-date=1 September 2017 }} Free online resources for teachers and students interested in argument mapping in philosophy.
* {{cite book |last1=van Eemeren |first1=Frans H. |author-link1=Frans H. van Eemeren |last2=Garssen |first2=Bart |last3=Krabbe |first3=Erik C. W. |last4=Snoeck Henkemans |first4=A. Francisca |last5=Verheij |first5=Bart |last6=Wagemans |first6=Jean H. M. |date=2014 |title=Handbook of argumentation theory |location=New York |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789048194728 |oclc=871004444 |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9473-5 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Facione |first1=Peter A. |last2=Facione |first2=Noreen C. |title=Thinking and reasoning in human decision making: the method of argument and heuristic analysis |year=2007 |location=Milbrae, CA |publisher=California Academic Press |isbn=978-1891557583 |oclc=182039452 }}
* {{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |author-link=Tim van Gelder |url=http://timvangelder.com/2009/02/17/what-is-argument-mapping/ |title=What is argument mapping? |publisher=timvangelder.com |date=17 February 2009 |access-date=12 January 2015 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Harrell |first=Maralee |title=Using argument diagramming software in the classroom |journal=[[Teaching Philosophy]] |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=163–177 |date=June 2005 |doi=10.5840/teachphil200528222 |url=http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/ArgumentDiagramsInClassroom.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907141143/http://www.hss.cmu.edu/philosophy/harrell/ArgumentDiagramsInClassroom.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-07 |citeseerx=10.1.1.526.7982 |s2cid=5573216 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Harrell |first1=Maralee |last2=Wetzel |first2=Danielle |date=2015 |chapter=Using argument diagramming to teach critical thinking in a first-year writing course |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Barnett |editor2-first=Ronald |title=The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education |location=New York |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=213–232 |isbn=9781137378033 |oclc=894935460 |doi=10.1057/9781137378057_14 |chapter-url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HARUAD-9 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Jodi |last2=Groza |first2=Tudor |last3=Passant |first3=Alexandre |date=April 2013 |title=A review of argumentation for the social semantic web |journal=Semantic Web |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=159–218 |url=http://semantic-web-journal.org/sites/default/files/swj138_0.pdf |doi=10.3233/SW-2012-0073 |doi-access=free }}
{{refend}}

{{Mindmaps}}

[[Category:Argument mapping| ]]
[[Category:Arguments|Map]]
[[Category:Diagrams]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Philosophical analogies]]
[[Category:Problem structuring methods]]