View source for Biotechnology

{{short description|Use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2018}}
[[File:Faculty of Food Engineering and Biotechnology 4.jpg|thumb|Faculty of Food Engineering and Biotechnology]]
'''Biotechnology''' is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of [[natural science]]s and [[Engineering Science|engineering sciences]] in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Biotechnology |url=https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/B00666 |website=IUPAC Goldbook |year=2014 |doi=10.1351/goldbook.B00666 |doi-access=free |access-date=February 14, 2022 |archive-date=January 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120205824/https://goldbook.iupac.org/terms/view/B00666 |url-status=live }}</ref> 

The term ''biotechnology'' was first used by [[Károly Ereky]] in 1919<ref>{{cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006798043|title=Biotechnologie der Fleisch-, Fett-, und Milcherzeugung im landwirtschaftlichen Grossbetriebe: für naturwissenschaftlich gebildete Landwirte verfasst|first=Karl.|last=Ereky|date=June 8, 1919|publisher=P. Parey|via=Hathi Trust|access-date=March 16, 2022|archive-date=March 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305023252/http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006798043|url-status=live}}</ref> to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances.

Biotechnology  had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to [[environmental science]]. One of the key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering, which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Genetic Engineering |url=https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic-Engineering|date=2023-12-15 |access-date=2023-12-18 |publisher=National Human Genome Research Institute, US National Institutes of Health|language=en}}</ref>

Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in the lab for research and medical purposes, and [[fermentation]], which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese.

The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, biofuels, genetically modified crops, and innovative materials.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=Varsha |last2=Sengupta |first2=Manjistha |last3=Prakash |first3=Jaya |last4=Tripathy |first4=Baishnab Charan |date=2016-10-23 |title=An Introduction to Biotechnology |journal=Basic and Applied Aspects of Biotechnology |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-0875-7_1 |pmc=7119977|isbn=978-981-10-0873-3 }}</ref> It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites.

Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around [[Genetic Modification|genetic modification]] and [[Intellectual Property Rights|intellectual property rights]]. As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Mathúna |first=Dónal P. |date=2007-04-01 |title=Bioethics and biotechnology |journal=Cytotechnology |volume=53 |issue=1–3 |pages=113–119 |doi=10.1007/s10616-007-9053-8 |issn=0920-9069 |pmc=2267612 |pmid=19003197}}</ref>

==Definition==
{{TopicTOC-Biology}}

The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for [[genetic engineering|modifying]] living [[organism]]s for human purposes, going back to [[domestication]] of animals, cultivation of the plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]]. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as [[cell culture|cell]] and [[tissue culture]] technologies. The [[American Chemical Society]] defines ''biotechnology'' as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the [[list of life sciences|science of life]] and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and [[livestock]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003377&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=5a1c54a6-ff5a-4f69-84c1-763835d11162 |title=Biotechnology |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |website=portal.acs.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107072612/http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true |archive-date=November 7, 2012 |access-date=2013-03-20}}</ref> As per the [[European Federation of Biotechnology]], biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nvsrochd.gov.in/s_club/biology/ch11_bilas.pdf |title=BIOTECHNOLOGY-PRINCIPLES & PROCESSES |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807020753/http://nvsrochd.gov.in/s_club/biology/ch11_bilas.pdf |archive-date=August 7, 2015 |access-date=2014-12-29}}</ref> Biotechnology is based on the [[basic research|basic]] [[biology|biological sciences]] (e.g., [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], [[cell biology]], [[embryology]], [[genetics]], [[microbiology]]) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology.

Biotechnology is the [[research and development]] in the [[laboratory]] using [[bioinformatics]] for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any [[living organisms]] and any source of [[biomass]] by means of [[biochemical engineering]] where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by [[biosynthesis]], for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the [[pharmaceutical]] branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products).<ref>[https://archive.today/20130414170840/http://www.europabio.org/what-biotechnology What is biotechnology?]. Europabio. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.oecd.org/science/innovationinsciencetechnologyandindustry/49303992.pdf Key Biotechnology Indicators (December 2011)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108080057/http://www.oecd.org/science/innovationinsciencetechnologyandindustry/49303992.pdf |date=November 8, 2012 }}. oecd.org</ref><ref>[http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotechnologypolicies/keybiotechnologyindicators.htm "Biotechnology policies" – Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831071244/http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotechnologypolicies/keybiotechnologyindicators.htm |date=August 31, 2012 }}. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> The utilization of biological processes, [[organism]]s or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History, scope and development of biotechnology |publisher=IOPscience |date=May 2018 |doi=10.1088/978-0-7503-1299-8ch1 |doi-access=free |language=en |last1=Goli |first1=Divakar |last2=Bhatia |first2=Saurabh |isbn=978-0-7503-1299-8 }}</ref>

By contrast, [[bioengineering]] is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials ''directly'') for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of [[engineering]] and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals.<ref>[http://www.bionewsonline.com/k/what_is_bioengineering.htm What Is Bioengineering?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123084548/http://www.bionewsonline.com/k/what_is_bioengineering.htm |date=January 23, 2013 }}. Bionewsonline.com. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> Relatedly, [[biomedical engineering]] is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies ''biotechnology'' (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or [[chemical engineering]] such as [[tissue engineering]], [[pharmaceutical engineering|biopharmaceutical engineering]], and [[genetic engineering]].

==History==
[[File:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|upright|thumb|[[Brewing]] was an early application of biotechnology.]]

{{Main|History of biotechnology}}

Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived [[agriculture]] clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.

[[Agriculture]] has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the [[Neolithic Revolution]]. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively [[fertilize]], [[nitrogen fixation|restore nitrogen]], and [[pesticide|control pests]]. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and [[plant breeding|breeding]] them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.{{clarify|date=February 2022}}

These processes also were included in early fermentation of [[beer]].<ref>See {{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=John P. |title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology |publisher=BeerBooks |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-9662084-1-2 |location=Cleveland, Ohio |page=34 |oclc=71834130 |name-list-style=vanc}}.</ref> These processes were introduced in early [[Mesopotamia]], [[Egypt]], [[China]] and [[India]], and still use the same basic biological methods.  In [[brewing]], malted grains (containing [[enzyme]]s) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific [[yeast]]s to produce beer. In this process, [[carbohydrate]]s in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of [[lactic acid fermentation]], which produced other preserved foods, such as [[soy sauce]]. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce [[leavened bread]]. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until [[Louis Pasteur]]'s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

Before the time of [[Charles Darwin]]'s work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cole-Turner |first=Ronald |date=2003 |title=Biotechnology |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |journal=Encyclopedia of Science and Religion |access-date=December 7, 2014 |name-list-style=vanc |archive-date=October 25, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025010817/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404200058.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve the production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.<ref name="Thieman">{{Cite book |title=Introduction to Biotechnology |vauthors=Thieman WJ, Palladino MA |publisher=Pearson/Benjamin Cummings |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-321-49145-9}}</ref>

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of [[microbiology]] and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, [[Chaim Weizmann]] first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing [[corn starch]] using ''[[Clostridium acetobutylicum]],'' to produce [[acetone]], which the [[United Kingdom]] desperately needed to manufacture [[explosive]]s during [[World War I]].<ref name="Springham_biotechnology">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GY5DCr6LD4C |title=Biotechnology: The Science and the Business |vauthors=Springham D, Springham G, Moses V, Cape RE |publisher=CRC Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-90-5702-407-8 |page=1}}</ref>

Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, [[Alexander Fleming]] discovered the mold ''[[Penicillium]]''. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as [[penicillin]]. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.<ref name="Thieman" />

The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. [[Herbert Boyer|Herbert W. Boyer]] (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and [[Stanley Norman Cohen|Stanley N. Cohen]] (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that a [[genetic engineering|genetically modified]] [[microorganism]] could be [[patent]]ed in the case of ''[[Diamond v. Chakrabarty]]''.<ref name="DiamondvChakrabarty">"[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). No. 79-139] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628191938/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=447&invol=303 |date=June 28, 2011 }}." ''[[United States Supreme Court]].'' June 16, 1980. Retrieved on May 4, 2007.</ref> Indian-born [[Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty|Ananda Chakrabarty]], working for [[General Electric]], had modified a bacterium (of the genus ''[[Pseudomonas]]'') capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the ''Pseudomonas'' bacterium).

The [[MOSFET]] (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by [[Mohamed M. Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] in 1959.<ref name="computerhistory">{{Cite journal |title=1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/ |journal=The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=August 31, 2019 |archive-date=October 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027045554/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Two years later, [[Leland C. Clark]] and Champ Lyons invented the first [[biosensor]] in 1962.<ref name="Park">{{Cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Jeho |last2=Nguyen |first2=Hoang Hiep |last3=Woubit |first3=Abdela |last4=Kim |first4=Moonil |s2cid=55557610 |date=2014 |title=Applications of Field-Effect Transistor (FET){{ndash}}Type Biosensors |journal=[[Applied Science and Convergence Technology]] |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=61–71 |doi=10.5757/ASCT.2014.23.2.61 |issn=2288-6559|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Leland C. |last2=Lyons |first2=Champ |date=1962 |title=Electrode Systems for Continuous Monitoring in Cardiovascular Surgery |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=29–45 |bibcode=1962NYASA.102...29C |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x |issn=1749-6632 |pmid=14021529 |s2cid=33342483 |author1-link=Leland Clark}}</ref> [[Bio-FET|Biosensor MOSFETs]] were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure [[physics|physical]], [[chemistry|chemical]], [[biological]] and [[Ecology|environmental]] parameters.<ref name="Bergveld">{{Cite journal |last=Bergveld |first=Piet |date=October 1985 |title=The impact of MOSFET-based sensors |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11473091.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11473091.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Sensors and Actuators |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=109–127 |bibcode=1985SeAc....8..109B |doi=10.1016/0250-6874(85)87009-8 |issn=0250-6874 |author1-link=Piet Bergveld}}</ref> The first BioFET was the [[ion-sensitive field-effect transistor]] (ISFET), invented by [[Piet Bergveld]] in 1970.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chris Toumazou |last2=Pantelis Georgiou |date=December 2011 |title=40 years of ISFET technology:From neuronal sensing to DNA sequencing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260616066 |journal=[[Electronics Letters]] |access-date=May 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bergveld1970">{{Cite journal |last=Bergveld |first=P. |date=January 1970 |title=Development of an Ion-Sensitive Solid-State Device for Neurophysiological Measurements |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering]] |volume=BME-17 |issue=1 |pages=70–71 |doi=10.1109/TBME.1970.4502688 |pmid=5441220}}</ref> It is a special type of MOSFET,<ref name="Bergveld" /> where the [[metal gate]] is replaced by an [[ion]]-sensitive [[membrane]], [[electrolyte]] solution and [[reference electrode]].<ref name="Schoning">{{Cite journal |last1=Schöning |first1=Michael J. |last2=Poghossian |first2=Arshak |date=September 10, 2002 |title=Recent advances in biologically sensitive field-effect transistors (BioFETs) |url=http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/16078/files/12968.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/16078/files/12968.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Analyst |volume=127 |issue=9 |pages=1137–1151 |bibcode=2002Ana...127.1137S |doi=10.1039/B204444G |issn=1364-5528 |pmid=12375833}}</ref> The ISFET is widely used in [[biomedical]] applications, such as the detection of [[DNA hybridization]], [[biomarker]] detection from [[blood]], [[antibody]] detection, [[glucose]] measurement, [[pH]] sensing, and [[genetic technology]].<ref name="Schoning" />

By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the [[gas sensor]] FET (GASFET), [[pressure sensor]] FET (PRESSFET), [[chemical field-effect transistor]] (ChemFET), [[ISFET|reference ISFET]] (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).<ref name="Bergveld" /> By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the [[DNA field-effect transistor]] (DNAFET), [[Genetically modified|gene-modified]] FET (GenFET) and [[Membrane potential|cell-potential]] BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.<ref name="Schoning" />

A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, [[United States|U.S.]] population.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080402034432/http://www.ibisworld.com/pressrelease/pressrelease.aspx?prid=115 VoIP Providers And Corn Farmers Can Expect To Have Bumper Years In 2008 And Beyond, According To The Latest Research Released By Business Information Analysts At IBISWorld]. Los Angeles (March 19, 2008)</ref>

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] estimating [[ethanol]] usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ |title=The Recession List - Top 10 Industries to Fly and Flop in 2008 |date=2008-03-19 |publisher=Bio-Medicine.org |access-date=May 19, 2008 |archive-date=June 2, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602160516/http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-technology-1/The-Recession-List---Top-10-Industries-to-Fly-and-Flop-in-2008-4076-3/ }}</ref>

==Examples==
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., [[biodegradable plastic]]s, [[vegetable oil]], [[biofuel]]s), and [[Natural environment|environmental]] uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of [[microorganism]]s for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]] and [[milk]] products). Another example is using naturally present [[bacteria]] by the mining industry in [[bioleaching]]. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and also to produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]].

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
* [[Bioinformatics]] (also called "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as ''[[computational biology]]'', and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale".<ref name="gerstein">Gerstein, M. "[http://www.primate.or.kr/bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf Bioinformatics Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616013805/http://www.primate.or.kr/bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf |date=2007-06-16 }}." ''[[Yale University]].'' Retrieved on May 8, 2007.</ref> Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as [[functional genomics]], [[structural genomics]], and [[proteomics]], and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.<ref name=":2">Siam, R. (2009). Biotechnology Research and Development in Academia: providing the foundation for Egypt's Biotechnology spectrum of colors. Sixteenth Annual American University in Cairo Research Conference, American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt. BMC Proceedings, 31–35.</ref>
* Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications.<ref name=":0" /> This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries of refining and combustion principally on the production of [[Biofuel|bio-oils]] with photosynthetic micro-algae.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Biotech: true colours. (2009). TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.</ref>
* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via [[micropropagation]]. Another example is the designing of [[transgenic plant]]s to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional [[industrial agriculture]]. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a [[pesticide]], thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be [[Transgenic maize|Bt corn]]. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.<ref name=":0">Kafarski, P. (2012). [http://www.chemikinternational.com/pdf/2012/08_2012/chemik_8_2012_01.pdf Rainbow Code of Biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214054125/http://www.chemikinternational.com/pdf/2012/08_2012/chemik_8_2012_01.pdf |date=February 14, 2019 }}. CHEMIK. Wroclaw University</ref> It is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards [[biotic stress|biotic]] and [[abiotic stress]], plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture.<ref name=":0" /> On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve [[microorganism]]s to clean and reduce waste.<ref>Aldridge, S. (2009). The four colours of biotechnology: the biotechnology sector is occasionally described as a rainbow, with each sub sector having its own colour. But what do the different colours of biotechnology have to offer the pharmaceutical industry. Pharmaceutical Technology Europe, (1). 12.</ref><ref name=":0" />
* Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and [[pharmaceutical]] industries, and health preservation.<ref name=":0" /> This branch involves the production of [[vaccine]]s and [[antibiotic]]s, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases.<ref name=":0" /> As well as the development of [[hormones]], [[stem cells]], [[antibodies]], siRNA and [[diagnostic tests]].<ref name=":0" />
* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to [[Manufacturing|industrial]] processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of [[enzyme]]s as industrial [[catalyst]]s to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Frazzetto G |date=September 2003 |title=White biotechnology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=835–7 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor928 |pmc=1326365 |pmid=12949582}}</ref><ref name=":4">Frazzetto, G. (2003). [http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 White biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111024351/http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 |date=November 11, 2018 }}. March 21, 2017, de EMBOpress Sitio</ref>
* "Yellow biotechnology" refers to the use of biotechnology in food production ([[food industry]]), for example in making wine ([[winemaking]]), cheese ([[cheesemaking]]), and beer ([[brewing]]) by [[fermentation]].<ref name=":0" /> It has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects. This includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches.<ref name=":6">[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-39863-6 Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719084141/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-39863-6 |date=July 19, 2018 }}, Volume 135 2013, Yellow Biotechnology I</ref>
* Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of [[biodiversity]] and the remotion of pollutants.<ref name=":0" />
* Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and [[desert]]s. One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme [[desert climate|environmental conditions]] of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.<ref name=":0" />
* Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology.<ref name=":0" />
* Cerulean Biotechnology has been proposed for the rapidly emerging area of biotechnology applications in space and microgravity
* Dark biotechnology is the color associated with [[bioterrorism]] or [[biological weapons]] and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops.<ref>Edgar, J.D. (2004). The Colours of Biotechnology: Science, Development and Humankind. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, (3), 01</ref><ref name=":0" />

===Medicine===
In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as [[pharmaceutical drug]] discoveries and production, [[pharmacogenomics]], and genetic testing (or [[Genetic testing|genetic screening]]). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in [[Oncology]] with [[Neurology]] and [[Rare Disease]]s being the other two big applications.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> 
[[File:Microarray2.gif|thumb|[[DNA microarray]] chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. ]]

[[Pharmacogenomics]] (a combination of [[pharmacology]] and [[genomics]]) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.<ref>Ermak G. (2013) ''Modern Science & Future Medicine'' (second edition)</ref> Researchers in the field investigate the influence of [[genetics|genetic]] variation on drug responses in patients by correlating [[gene expression]] or [[single-nucleotide polymorphism]]s with a drug's [[efficacy]] or [[toxicity]].<ref name="pmid20836007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wang L |year=2010 |title=Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach |journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1002/wsbm.42 |pmc=3894835 |pmid=20836007}}</ref> The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' [[genotype]], to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal [[adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]].<ref name="pmid19530963">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Becquemont L |date=June 2009 |title=Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=961–9 |doi=10.2217/pgs.09.37 |pmid=19530963}}</ref> Such approaches promise the advent of "[[personalized medicine]]"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Guidance for Industry Pharmacogenomic Data Submissions |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=August 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid20712531">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, Mitropoulos K, Del Zompo M, Patrinos GP |date=August 2010 |title=Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1149–67 |doi=10.2217/pgs.10.97 |pmid=20712531}}</ref>

[[File:InsulinHexamer.jpg|thumb|Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold [[symmetry]], the [[zinc]] ions holding it together, and the [[histidine]] residues involved in zinc binding]]

Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional [[small molecule]] [[pharmaceutical drugs]] as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – [[biopharmaceutics]]. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 [[Genentech]] developed synthetic humanized [[insulin]] by joining its gene with a [[plasmid]] vector inserted into the bacterium ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of [[abattoir]] animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 |title=Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? |vauthors=Bains W |publisher=Penguin |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-14-013501-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 99] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="USIS">U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, "Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology", USIS Online; available from [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html USinfo.state.gov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065554/http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html |date=September 12, 2007 }}, accessed September 13, 2007. Cf. {{Cite journal |vauthors=Feldbaum C |date=February 2002 |title=Biotechnology. Some history should be repeated |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5557 |page=975 |doi=10.1126/science.1069614 |pmid=11834802|s2cid=32595222 }}</ref> Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like [[gene therapy]]. The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the [[Human Genome Project]]) has also dramatically improved our understanding of [[biology]] and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well.<ref name=USIS/>

[[Genetic testing]] allows the [[Genetics|genetic]] [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of vulnerabilities to inherited [[diseases]], and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's [[ancestry]]. In addition to studying [[chromosomes]] to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes [[biochemical]] tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in [[chromosomes]], genes, or proteins.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting |title=What is genetic testing? – Genetics Home Reference |date=May 30, 2011 |publisher=Ghr.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=May 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529002711/http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting }}</ref> Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a [[genetic disorder]]. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |title=Genetic Testing: MedlinePlus |publisher=Nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=June 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608142655/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |title=Definitions of Genetic Testing |date=September 11, 2008 |website=Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães) |publisher=EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204181251/http://eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |access-date=August 10, 2008}}</ref> Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by [[genetic counseling]].

===Agriculture===

[[Genetically modified crops]] ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in [[agriculture]], the [[DNA]] of which has been modified with [[genetic engineering]] techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new [[trait (biology)|trait]] that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology.

Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests,<ref name="news.google.co.uk">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731032615/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= |date=July 31, 2022 }} Lawrence Journal-World – May 6, 1995</ref> diseases,<ref>{{Cite book |last=National Academy of Sciences |title=Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture |publisher=National Academy Press |year=2001 |location=Washington}}</ref> stressful environmental conditions,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |title=Drought Tolerant GMO Maize in Africa, Anticipating Regulatory Hurdles |last=Paarlburg |first=Robert |date=January 2011 |publisher=International Life Sciences Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222081325/http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2014 |access-date=April 25, 2011 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a [[herbicide]]<ref>Carpenter J. & Gianessi L. (1999). [http://agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm Herbicide tolerant soybeans: Why growers are adopting Roundup Ready varieties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119133446/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm |date=November 19, 2012 }}. AgBioForum, 2(2), 65–72.</ref>), reduction of spoilage,<ref name="Haroldsen1">{{Cite journal |last1=Haroldsen |first1=Victor M. |last2=Paulino |first2=Gabriel |last3=Chi-ham |first3=Cecilia |last4=Bennett |first4=Alan B. |year=2012 |title=Research and adoption of biotechnology strategies could improve California fruit and nut crops |journal=California Agriculture |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=62–69 |doi=10.3733/ca.v066n02p62 |name-list-style=vanc|doi-access=free }}</ref> or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.<ref>[http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en About Golden Rice] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112216/http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en |date=November 2, 2012 }}. Irri.org. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> Examples in non-food crops include production of [[Plant manufactured pharmaceuticals|pharmaceutical agents]],<ref>Gali Weinreb and Koby Yeshayahou for Globes May 2, 2012. [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 FDA approves Protalix Gaucher treatment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529030847/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 |date=May 29, 2013 }}</ref> [[biofuel]]s,<ref>Carrington, Damien (January 19, 2012) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels GM microbe breakthrough paves way for large-scale seaweed farming for biofuels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511010433/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels |date=May 11, 2017 }}  The Guardian. Retrieved March 12, 2012</ref> and other industrially useful goods,<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=van Beilen JB, Poirier Y |s2cid=25954199 |date=May 2008 |title=Production of renewable polymers from crop plants |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=684–701 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03431.x |pmid=18476872|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as for [[bioremediation]].<ref>Strange, Amy (September 20, 2011) [http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html Scientists engineer plants to eat toxic pollution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913133755/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html |date=September 13, 2011 }} The Irish Times. Retrieved September 20, 2011</ref><ref name="Diaz">{{Cite book |editor=Diaz E |url=https://archive.org/details/microbialbiodegr0000unse |title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-904455-17-2 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from {{convert|17000|km2|acre|sp=us}} to 1,600,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (395 million acres).<ref name=James2011 /> 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.<ref name="James2011">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |title=ISAAA Brief 43, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011 |year=2011 |website=ISAAA Briefs |publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) |location=Ithaca, New York |access-date=June 2, 2012 |vauthors=James C |archive-date=February 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210025832/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[India]], Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.<ref name=James2011 />

[[Genetically modified food]]s are foods produced from [[organism]]s that have had specific changes introduced into their [[DNA]] with the methods of [[genetic engineering]]. These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as [[selective breeding]] and [[mutation breeding]].<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100707/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf |date=October 16, 2013 }}, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9</ref> Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when [[Calgene]] first marketed its [[Flavr Savr]] delayed ripening tomato.<ref name="James 1996">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995 |last=James |first=Clive |year=1996 |publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications |access-date=July 17, 2010 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on [[cash crop]]s in high demand by farmers such as [[Transgenic soybean|soybean]], [[Transgenic maize|corn]], [[canola]], and [[cotton seed oil]]. These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm |title=Consumer Q&A |date=March 6, 2009 |publisher=Fda.gov |access-date=December 29, 2012 |archive-date=January 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110170104/http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm280853.htm |title=AquAdvantage Salmon |publisher=FDA |access-date=July 20, 2018 |archive-date=December 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231004929/http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/GeneticEngineering/GeneticallyEngineeredAnimals/ucm280853.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

There is a [[scientific consensus]]<ref name="Nicolia2013"/><ref name="FAO" /><ref name="Ronald2011" /><ref name="Also"/> that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,<ref name="AAAS2012"/><ref name="ECom2010" /><ref name="AMA2001"/><ref name="LoC2015" /><ref name="NAS2016" /> but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.<ref name="WHOFAQ"/><ref name="Haslberger2003" /><ref name="BMA2004"/> Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.<ref name="PEW2015" /><ref name="Marris2001" /><ref name="PABE" /><ref name="Scott2016" /> The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.<ref name="loc.gov" /><ref name="Bashshur" /><ref name="Sifferlin" /><ref name="Council on Foreign Relations" />

GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{Cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/business/energy-environment/14crop.html |title=Study Says Overuse Threatens Gains From Modified Crops |date=April 13, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |name-list-style=vanc |access-date=February 24, 2017 |archive-date=November 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121075939/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/business/energy-environment/14crop.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brookes |first1=Graham |last2=Barfoot |first2=Peter |date=2017-05-08 |title=Farm income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2015 |journal=GM Crops & Food |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=156–193 |doi=10.1080/21645698.2017.1317919 |pmid=28481684 |pmc=5617554 |issn=2164-5698}}</ref> However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.

Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like [[Golden rice]] are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tyczewska |first1=Agata |last2=Twardowski |first2=Tomasz |last3=Woźniak-Gientka |first3=Ewa |date=January 2023 |title=Agricultural biotechnology for sustainable food security |journal=Trends in Biotechnology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=331–341 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.12.013 |pmid=36710131 |pmc=9881846 |s2cid=256304868 |issn=0167-7799}}</ref> Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sairam |first1=R. V. |last2=Prakash |first2=C. S. |date=July 2005 |title=OBPC Symposium: maize 2004 & beyond—Can agricultural biotechnology contribute to global food security? |journal=In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=424–430 |doi=10.1079/ivp2005663 |s2cid=25855065 |issn=1054-5476}}</ref> Transgenic [[biofortification]] in [[cereal]]s has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kumar |first1=Pankaj |title=Recent Progress in Cereals Biofortification to Alleviate Malnutrition in India: An Overview |date=2021 |work=Agricultural Biotechnology: Latest Research and Trends |pages=253–280 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature Singapore |isbn=978-981-16-2338-7 |last2=Kumar |first2=Arun |last3=Dhiman |first3=Karuna |last4=Srivastava |first4=Dinesh Kumar|doi=10.1007/978-981-16-2339-4_11 |s2cid=245834290 }}</ref>

===Industrial===
Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including [[industrial fermentation]]. It includes the practice of using [[Cell (biology)|cells]] such as [[microorganism]]s, or components of cells like [[enzyme]]s, to generate [[Industry (manufacturing)|industrially]] useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and [[biofuel]]s.<ref>[http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/media/documents/pdf/Energy_Environment/Industrial_biotech_and_biomass_utilisation_EGM_report.pdf Industrial Biotechnology and Biomass Utilisation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405175248/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/media/documents/pdf/Energy_Environment/Industrial_biotech_and_biomass_utilisation_EGM_report.pdf |date=April 5, 2013 }}</ref> In the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating [[Genetically modified organism|genetically modified organisms (GMOs)]] that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.innovationeu.org/news/innovation-eu-vol2-1/0262-industrial-biotechnology.html |title=Industrial biotechnology, A powerful, innovative technology to mitigate climate change |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191501/http://www.innovationeu.org/news/innovation-eu-vol2-1/0262-industrial-biotechnology.html |archive-date=January 2, 2014 |access-date=January 1, 2014}}</ref>

[[Synthetic biology]] is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with [[Environmentally friendly|nature-friendly]] features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=Lionel|last2=Kitney|first2=Richard|date=2020-02-28|title=Developing synthetic biology for industrial biotechnology applications|journal=Biochemical Society Transactions|volume=48|issue=1|pages=113–122|doi=10.1042/BST20190349|issn=0300-5127|pmc=7054743|pmid=32077472}}</ref> Synthetic biology can be used to engineer [[Model organism|model microorganisms]], such as ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', by [[genome editing]] tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as [[bioproduction]] of medicines and [[biofuel]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McCarty|first1=Nicholas S.|last2=Ledesma-Amaro|first2=Rodrigo|date=February 2019|title=Synthetic Biology Tools to Engineer Microbial Communities for Biotechnology|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=37|issue=2|pages=181–197|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.11.002|issn=0167-7799|pmc=6340809|pmid=30497870}}</ref> For instance, ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the [[chemotherapeutic agent]] [[paclitaxel]] by applying the [[metabolic engineering]] in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhou|first1=Kang|last2=Qiao|first2=Kangjian|last3=Edgar|first3=Steven|last4=Stephanopoulos|first4=Gregory|date=April 2015|title=Distributing a metabolic pathway among a microbial consortium enhances production of natural products|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=377–383|doi=10.1038/nbt.3095|issn=1087-0156|pmc=4867547|pmid=25558867}}</ref>

Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the [[metabolic pathway]]s of ''E. coli'' by [[CRISPR gene editing|CRISPR]] and [[CRISPR interference|CRISPRi]] systems toward the production of a chemical known as [[1,4-Butanediol|1,4-butanediol]], which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the ''Escherichia coli'' by CRISPR to induce [[point mutation]] in the ''glt''A gene, [[Gene knockout|knockout]] of the ''sad'' gene, and [[Gene knock-in|knock-in]] six genes (''cat''1, ''suc''D, ''4hbd'', ''cat''2, ''bld'', and ''bdh''). Whereas CRISPRi system used to [[Gene knockdown|knockdown]] the three competing genes (''gab''D, ''ybg''C, and ''tes''B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Meng-Ying|last2=Sung|first2=Li-Yu|last3=Li|first3=Hung|last4=Huang|first4=Chun-Hung|last5=Hu|first5=Yu-Chen|date=2017-12-15|title=Combining CRISPR and CRISPRi Systems for Metabolic Engineering of E. coli and 1,4-BDO Biosynthesis|journal=ACS Synthetic Biology|volume=6|issue=12|pages=2350–2361|doi=10.1021/acssynbio.7b00251|issn=2161-5063|pmid=28854333}}</ref>

===Environmental===

Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing [[Environmentally friendly|environmentally safe]] processes, such as [[Biofilter|biofiltration]] and [[biodegradation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pakshirajan|first1=Kannan|last2=Rene|first2=Eldon R.|last3=Ramesh|first3=Aiyagari|date=2014|title=Biotechnology in environmental monitoring and pollution abatement|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|page=235472|doi=10.1155/2014/235472|issn=2314-6141|pmc=4017724|pmid=24864232|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Danso|first1=Dominik|last2=Chow|first2=Jennifer|last3=Streit|first3=Wolfgang R.|date=2019-10-01|title=Plastics: Environmental and Biotechnological Perspectives on Microbial Degradation|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=85|issue=19|doi=10.1128/AEM.01095-19|issn=1098-5336|pmc=6752018|pmid=31324632|bibcode=2019ApEnM..85E1095D }}</ref> The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., [[bioremediation]] is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively.<ref>[[Daniel A. Vallero]], ''Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach'', Academic Press, Amsterdam, NV; {{ISBN|978-0-12-375089-1}}; 2010.</ref> Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of [[environmental biotechnology]]; whereas [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology.

Many cities have installed [[CityTrees]], which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-09 |title=Debate on robot trees looks to clear the air: What are other countries doing? |url=https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/arid-41266045.html |access-date=2024-01-17 |newspaper=The Echo |language=en}}</ref>

===Regulation===
{{main|Regulation of genetic engineering|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms}}

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the [[Biotechnology risk|risks]] associated with the use of [[genetic engineering]] technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including [[genetically modified crops]] and [[genetically modified fish]]. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gaskell G, Bauer MW, Durant J, Allum NC |s2cid=5131870 |date=July 1999 |title=Worlds apart? The reception of genetically modified foods in Europe and the U.S |journal=Science |volume=285 |issue=5426 |pages=384–7 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5426.384 |pmid=10411496}}</ref> Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.<ref name="PotatoPro">{{Cite web |url=http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm |title=The History and Future of GM Potatoes |date=March 10, 2010 |website=Potato Pro |access-date=January 1, 2014 |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012033805/http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm }}</ref> The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.<ref name="Wesseler-2011">{{Cite book |title=EU Policy for Agriculture, Food and Rural Areas |vauthors=Wesseler J, Kalaitzandonakes N |publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers |year=2011 |veditors=Oskam A, Meesters G, Silvis H |edition=2nd |location=Wageningen |pages=23–332 |chapter=Present and Future EU GMO policy |author-link=Justus Wesseler}}</ref> The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ.<ref name="Beckman-2011">{{Cite book |title=Genetically modified food and global welfare |vauthors=Beckmann VC, Soregaroli J, Wesseler J |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |year=2011 |veditors=Carter C, Moschini G, Sheldon I |series=Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series |volume=10 |location=Bingley, UK |pages=201–224 |chapter=Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non GM) crops: Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value? |author-link3=Justus Wesseler}}</ref>

===Database for the GMOs used in the EU===
The [[EUginius]] (European GMO Initiative for a Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the [[European Union]]. The information is provided in English.

==Learning==
In 1988, after prompting from the [[United States Congress]], the [[National Institute of General Medical Sciences]] ([[National Institutes of Health]]) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. [[Graduate students]] in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their [[PhD]] thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/Pages/PredocDesc-Biotechnology.aspx |title=Biotechnology Predoctoral Training Program |date=December 18, 2013 |website=National Institute of General Medical Sciences |access-date=October 28, 2014 |archive-date=October 28, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028215034/http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Training/InstPredoc/Pages/PredocDesc-Biotechnology.aspx }}</ref> Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.

==References and notes==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Nicolia2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Nicolia |first1=Alessandro |last2=Manzo |first2=Alberto |last3=Veronesi |first3=Fabio |last4=Rosellini |first4=Daniele |date=2013 |title=An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research |url=https://www.pps.net/cms/lib/OR01913224/Centricity/Domain/3337/peer%20reviewed%20meta%20study%20on%20GMOs%20copy.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.pps.net/cms/lib/OR01913224/Centricity/Domain/3337/peer%20reviewed%20meta%20study%20on%20GMOs%20copy.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=77–88 |doi=10.3109/07388551.2013.823595 |pmid=24041244 |s2cid=9836802 |quote=We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops.<br /><br/>The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.}}</ref>
<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/y5160e10.htm#P3_1651The |title=State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants – mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape – without any observed adverse effects (ICSU). |archive-date=January 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109114119/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/y5160e10.htm#P3_1651The |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Ronald2011">{{Cite journal |last=Ronald |first=Pamela |date=May 1, 2011 |title=Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security |journal=Genetics |volume=188 |issue=1 |pages=11–20 |doi=10.1534/genetics.111.128553 |pmc=3120150 |pmid=21546547 |quote="There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010)."}}</ref>
<ref name="Also"><p>But see also:</p><p>{{Cite journal |last1=Domingo |first1=José L. |last2=Bordonaba |first2=Jordi Giné |date=2011 |title=A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants |url=http://gaiapresse.ca/images/nouvelles/28563.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gaiapresse.ca/images/nouvelles/28563.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Environment International |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=734–742 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003 |pmid=21296423 |quote=In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.}}</p><p>{{Cite journal |last=Krimsky |first=Sheldon |s2cid=40855100 |date=2015 |title=An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment |journal=Science, Technology, & Human Values |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=883–914 |doi=10.1177/0162243915598381 |quote=I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.}}</p><p>And contrast:</p><p>{{Cite journal |last1=Panchin |first1=Alexander Y. |last2=Tuzhikov |first2=Alexander I. |s2cid=11786594 |date=January 14, 2016 |title=Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons |journal=Critical Reviews in Biotechnology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=213–217 |doi=10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684 |issn=0738-8551 |pmid=26767435 |quote=Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. <br /><br/> The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.}}</p><p>and</p>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Y.T. |last2=Chen |first2=B. |date=2016 |title=Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=96 |issue=4 |pages=1851–1855 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.7523 |pmid=26536836 |bibcode=2016JSFA...96.1851Y |quote=It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA ''(citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011)''. Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date.<br /><br/>Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.}}</ref>
<ref name="AAAS2012">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods |date=October 20, 2012 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote="The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques."}}<br /><br/>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers" |last=Pinholster |first=Ginger |date=October 25, 2012 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="ECom2010">{{Cite book |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010) |date=2010 |publisher=Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. |isbn=978-92-79-16344-9 |doi=10.2777/97784 |access-date=August 30, 2019|author1=European Commission. Directorate-General for Research }}</ref>
<ref name="AMA2001">{{Cite web |url=https://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/htm/articles/Position/ama.htm |title=AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods |date=January 2001 |publisher=American Medical Association |access-date=August 30, 2019 |via=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications |archive-date=April 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402230422/http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/htm/articles/Position/ama.htm |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf |title=Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods |date=2012 |publisher=American Medical Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907023039/http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf |archive-date=September 7, 2012 |access-date=August 30, 2019 }}</ref>
<ref name="LoC2015">{{Cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php#Opinion |title=Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion |date=June 30, 2015 |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote="Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs." |archive-date=December 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230064111/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php#Opinion |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="NAS2016">{{Cite book |last1=National Academies Of Sciences |first1=Engineering |url=http://www.nap.edu/read/23395/chapter/7#149 |title=Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects |last2=Division on Earth Life Studies |last3=Board on Agriculture Natural Resources |last4=Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects |date=2016 |publisher=The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US) |isbn=978-0-309-43738-7 |page=149 |doi=10.17226/23395 |pmid=28230933 |quote="''Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops:'' On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts." |access-date=August 30, 2019 |archive-date=November 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116025318/https://www.nap.edu/read/23395/chapter/7#149 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="WHOFAQ">{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/ |title=Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods.<br /><br/>GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods. |archive-date=November 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104021737/https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Haslberger2003">{{Cite journal |last=Haslberger |first=Alexander G. |date=2003 |title=Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=739–741 |doi=10.1038/nbt0703-739 |pmid=12833088 |s2cid=2533628 |quote=These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.}}</ref>
<ref name="BMA2004">Some medical organizations, including the [[British Medical Association]], advocate further caution based upon the [[precautionary principle]]:<br /><br/>{{Cite web |url=http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement |date=March 2004 |publisher=British Medical Association |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available.<br /><br/>When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis.<br /><br/>Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects.<br /><br/>The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.}}</ref>
<ref name="PEW2015">{{Cite web |url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/ |title=Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society |last1=Funk |first1=Cary |last2=Rainie |first2=Lee |date=January 29, 2015 |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=August 30, 2019 |quote=The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points. |archive-date=January 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109232405/http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Marris2001">{{Cite journal |last=Marris |first=Claire |date=2001 |title=Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=545–548 |doi=10.1093/embo-reports/kve142 |pmc=1083956 |pmid=11463731}}</ref>
<ref name="PABE">{{Cite web |url=http://csec.lancs.ac.uk/archive/pabe/docs/pabe_finalreport.doc |title=Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe |last=Final Report of the PABE research project |date=December 2001 |publisher=Commission of European Communities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525042822/http://csec.lancs.ac.uk/archive/pabe/docs/pabe_finalreport.doc |archive-date=2017-05-25 |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Scott2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=Sydney E. |last2=Inbar |first2=Yoel |last3=Rozin |first3=Paul |date=2016 |title=Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States |url=http://yoelinbar.net/papers/gmo_absolute.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://yoelinbar.net/papers/gmo_absolute.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=315–324 |doi=10.1177/1745691615621275 |pmid=27217243|s2cid=261060 }}</ref><ref name="loc.gov">{{Cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/ |title=Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms |date=June 9, 2015 |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=August 30, 2019 |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403002624/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name="Bashshur">{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanbar.org/content/newsletter/publications/aba_health_esource_home/aba_health_law_esource_1302_bashshur.html |title=FDA and Regulation of GMOs |last=Bashshur |first=Ramona |date=February 2013 |publisher=American Bar Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621044554/https://www.americanbar.org/content/newsletter/publications/aba_health_esource_home/aba_health_law_esource_1302_bashshur.html |archive-date=June 21, 2018 |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Sifferlin">{{Cite magazine |last=Sifferlin |first=Alexandra |date=October 3, 2015 |title=Over Half of E.U. Countries Are Opting Out of GMOs |url=http://time.com/4060476/eu-gmo-crops-european-union-opt-out/ |magazine=Time |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="Council on Foreign Relations">{{Cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/agricultural-policy/regulation-gmos-europe-united-states-case-study-contemporary-european-regulatory-politics/p8688 |title=The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics |last1=Lynch |first1=Diahanna |last2=Vogel |first2=David |date=April 5, 2001 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |access-date=August 30, 2019 |archive-date=September 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929200540/http://www.cfr.org/agricultural-policy/regulation-gmos-europe-united-states-case-study-contemporary-european-regulatory-politics/p8688 }}</ref>}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/ What is Biotechnology? – A curated collection of resources about the people, places and technologies that have enabled biotechnology]

{{Biotechnology|state=expanded}}
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