View source for Electric vehicle

{{Short description|Vehicle propelled by one or more electric motors}}
{{About|all types of electric transportation vehicles|electric automobiles|Electric car}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}

{{Duplication|date=March 2024|dupe=Electric car|discuss=Talk:Electric_vehicle#Car_detail_needs_moving_to_electric_car}}



An '''electric vehicle''' ('''EV''') is a vehicle that uses one or more [[traction motor|electric motors for propulsion]]. It can be powered by a [[current collector|collector system]], with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a [[electric vehicle battery|battery]] or by converting [[fuel]] to electricity using a [[electric generator|generator]] or [[fuel cell]]s.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Asif Faiz|author2=Christopher S. Weaver|author3=Michael P. Walsh|title=Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hqsyv_KD0lgC&pg=PA227+|year=1996|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-3444-7|page=227|access-date=4 December 2017|archive-date=4 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704025952/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hqsyv_KD0lgC&pg=PA227+|url-status=live}}</ref> EVs include  [[road vehicle|road]] and [[rail vehicle]]s, [[electric boat]]s and [[underwater vehicle|underwater vessel]]s, [[electric aircraft]] and [[electrically powered spacecraft propulsion|electric spacecraft]].{{multiple image
| image_width       = 270px
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| image1            = BMW i4 CRI 09 2022 8549.jpg
| image2            = Solar Impulse SI2 pilote Bertrand Piccard Payerne November 2014 (slightly cropped).jpg
| image3            = ULF B.jpg
| image4            = N700-2000 series X50 Shin-Shimonoseki 20140901.jpg
| image5            = BYD Elbuss.jpg
| image6            = Geero 2 Touring Classic Cream plus 2021.jpg
| image7            = Tesla Semi 6 (cropped).jpg
| image8            = LD 250408 23 4 S Front (cropped).jpg
| footer            = Electric vehicles around the world ''(left to right, from top)'':
* [[Electric car]], a [[BMW i4]]
* [[Electric aircraft]], the [[Solar Impulse 2]], which [[circumnavigated]] the globe
* Electric tram, a [[Wiener Linien]] [[Ultra Low Floor|ULF-B]] in Vienna, Austria
* Electric [[high-speed rail|high speed train]], [[N700 Series Shinkansen]] of [[JR Central]] on the [[San'yo Shinkansen]], Japan
* [[Battery electric bus]], a [[BYD Company|BYD]] bus in [[Landskrona]], Sweden
* [[E-bike]], a Geero
* [[Electric truck]], [[Class 8 truck|Class 8]], a [[Tesla Semi]] in Rocklin,{{Nbsp}}California
* [[Neighborhood Electric Vehicle|Electric cart]], an [[Italcar]] Attiva C2S.4
}}


Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 19th century, when the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] brought forth [[electrification]]. Using electricity was among the preferred methods for [[motor vehicle]] propulsion as it provides a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the [[gasoline engine]] cars of the time, but [[range anxiety]] due to the limited [[energy storage]] offered by [[history of the battery|contemporary battery technologies]] hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the 20th century. [[Internal combustion engine]]s (both gasoline and [[diesel engine]]s) were the dominant propulsion mechanisms for [[cars]] and [[trucks]] for about 100 years, but electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as [[overhead line]]-powered [[mass transit]] vehicles like [[electric locomotive|electric train]]s, [[tram]]s, [[monorail]]s and [[trolley bus]]es, as well as various small, low-speed, short-range battery-powered personal vehicles such as [[mobility scooter]]s. 

[[Hybrid electric vehicle]]s, where electric motors are used as a supplementary propulsion to internal combustion engines, became more widespread in the late 1990s. [[Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s, where electric motors can be used as the predominant propulsion rather than a supplement, did not see any [[mass production]] until the late 2000s, and [[battery electric car]]s did not become practical options for the [[consumer market]] until the 2010s.{{Sustainable transport sidebar}}

Progress in batteries, electric motors and power electronics have made electric cars more feasible than during the 20th century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars and trucks. 

== History ==
{{Main|History of the electric vehicle}}
Electric motive power started in 1827 when Hungarian priest [[Ányos Jedlik]] built the first crude but viable electric motor; the next year he used it to power a small model car.<ref name=Guarnieri>{{Cite book|last=Guarnieri|first=M.|title=2012 Third IEEE HISTory of ELectro-technology CONference (HISTELCON)|year=2012|chapter=Looking back to electric cars|pages=1–6|doi= 10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583 |isbn=978-1-4673-3078-7|s2cid=37828220}}</ref> In 1835, professor Sibrandus Stratingh of the [[University of Groningen]], in the [[Netherlands]], built a small-scale electric car, and sometime between 1832 and 1839, [[Robert Anderson (inventor)|Robert Anderson]] of [[Scotland]] invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable [[primary cell]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Mary |last=Bellis |url=http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm |title=Inventors – Electric Cars (1890–1930) |publisher=Inventors.about.com |date=16 June 2010 |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=4 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704025953/https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-electric-vehicles-1991603 |url-status=dead }}</ref> American blacksmith and inventor [[Thomas Davenport (inventor)|Thomas Davenport]] built a toy electric locomotive, powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named [[Robert Davidson (inventor)|Robert Davidson]] built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per hour (6&nbsp;km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html |title=History of Railway Electric Traction |publisher=Mikes.railhistory.railfan.net |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=24 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824101849/http://mikes.railhistory.railfan.net/r066.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Thomas Edison and George Meister in a Studebaker electric runabout. (25b5b64aa85e48bbb78368152c9a6d83).jpg|thumb|left|[[Thomas Edison]] and George Meister in a Studebaker electric runabout, 1909]]
The first mass-produced electric vehicles appeared in America in the early 1900s. In 1902, the [[Studebaker]] Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electric vehicles, though it also entered the gasoline vehicles market in 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by [[Ford Motor Company]], the popularity of electric cars declined significantly.<ref name=hendrym>{{cite book|title=Studebaker: One can do a lot of remembering in South Bend|last=Hendry|first=Maurice M|publisher= Automobile Quarterly|location=New Albany, Indiana|pages=228–275|id=Vol X, 3rd Q, 1972}} p231</ref>

Due to lack of electricity grids<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taalbi |first1=Josef |last2=Nielsen |first2=Hana |date=2021 |title=The role of energy infrastructure in shaping early adoption of electric and gasoline cars |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-021-00898-3 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=970–976 |doi=10.1038/s41560-021-00898-3 |bibcode=2021NatEn...6..970T |s2cid=242383930 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> and the limitations of [[storage batteries]] at that time, electric cars did not gain much popularity; however, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and achievable speeds. By the 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of [[electric locomotives]]. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles as [[Electric platform truck|platform trucks]], [[forklift truck]]s, ambulances,<ref>pp.8–9 Batten, Chris ''Ambulances'' Osprey Publishing, 4 March 2008</ref> tow tractors, and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British [[milk float]]. For most of the 20th century, the UK was the world's largest user of electric road vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |title=Escaping Lock-in: the Case of the Electric Vehicle |publisher=Cgl.uwaterloo.ca |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202136/http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~racowan/escape.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use the valuable [[oxygen]] in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of [[Rail transport in Switzerland|their rail network]]. One of the earliest [[rechargeable batteries]]{{snd}}the [[nickel-iron battery]]{{snd}}was favored by [[Thomas Edison|Edison]] for use in electric cars.

EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful [[internal combustion engines]] (ICEs), electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the early 1900s. They were produced by [[Baker Electric]], [[Columbia Automobile Company|Columbia Electric]], [[Detroit Electric]], and others, and at one point in history outsold gasoline-powered vehicles. In 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the US were electric. EVs were so popular that even President [[Woodrow Wilson]] and his secret service agents toured Washington, D.C., in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles (100–110&nbsp;km) per charge.<ref>AAA World Magazine. Jan–Feb 2011, p. 53</ref>

[[File:Seattle City Light Superintendent Gordon Vickery with prototype electric car, 1973 (34772918810).jpg|thumb|upright|A [[charging station]] in [[Seattle]] shows an [[AMC Gremlin]], modified to take electric power; it had a range of about {{convert|50|mi|km}} on one charge, 1973]]
Most producers of passenger cars opted for gasoline cars in the first decade of the 20th century, but electric trucks were an established niche well into the 1920s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kirsch |first=David |title=The electric vehicle and the burden of history. |publisher=Rutgers University Press. |year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mom |first=Gijs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=34em7PuciFAC&dq=gijs+mom&pg=PP1 |title=The Electric Vehicle: Technology and Expectations in the Automobile Age |date=2013-02-15 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-1268-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> A number of developments contributed to a decline in the popularity of electric cars.<ref>See Loeb, A.P., "Steam versus Electric versus Internal Combustion: Choosing the Vehicle Technology at the Start of the Automotive Age," Transportation Research Record, Journal of the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, No. 1885, at 1.</ref>  [[Auto trail|Improved road infrastructure]] required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances.<ref name=Britannica>{{citation
|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44957/automobile/259061/Early-electric-automobiles#ref=ref918099
|title=Automobile
|access-date=18 July 2009
|archive-date=30 April 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430024225/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44957/automobile/259061/Early-electric-automobiles#ref=ref918099
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Electric vehicles were not seldom marketed as a women's luxury car, which may have been a stigma among male consumers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scharff |first=Virginia |title=Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age |publisher=Univ. New Mexico Press |year=1992}}</ref> Also, internal combustion powered cars became ever-easier to operate thanks to the invention of the [[electric starter]] by [[Charles Kettering]] in 1912,<ref Name=R1>{{cite book|title=The Voltec System – Energy Storage and Electric Propulsion|pages=151–176|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262004450|last1=Matthe|first1=Roland|last2=Eberle|first2=Ulrich|date=1 January 2014|publisher=Elsevier Science |access-date=4 May 2014|isbn=978-0-444-59513-3|archive-date=9 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009220808/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262004450_The_Voltec_System_Energy_Storage_and_Electric_Propulsion|url-status=live}}</ref> which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the [[muffler]], which [[Hiram Percy Maxim]] had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside urban areas, electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, [[Assembly line|the initiation of mass production]] of gasoline-powered vehicles by [[Henry Ford]] in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars.<ref name=aboutcom>{{citation|last=Bellis|first=M.|year=2006|title=The History of Electric Vehicles|chapter=The Early Years|publisher=[[About.com]]|chapter-url=http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarselectrica.htm|access-date=6 July 2006|archive-date=4 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704025954/https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-electric-vehicles-1991603|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 1930s, [[National City Lines]], which was a partnership of [[General Motors]], [[Firestone Tire and Rubber Company|Firestone]], and [[Standard Oil of California]] purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership was convicted of [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy|conspiring]] to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but was acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services.

The [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Copenhagen Summit]], which was conducted in the midst of a severe observable climate change brought on by human-made greenhouse gas emissions, was held in 2009. During the summit, more than 70 countries developed plans to eventually reach net zero. For many countries, adopting more EVs will help reduce the use of gasoline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Net Zero Coalition |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/net-zero-coalition |access-date=2022-12-02 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref>

=== Experimentation ===
[[File:EV1A014 (1) cropped.jpg|thumb|[[General Motors EV1]] electric car (1996–1998), a subject of the film ''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'']]
In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the [[California Air Resources Board]] mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 [[General Motors EV1|EV1s]], 800 of which were made available through three-year leases.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Driving the Future|last=Quiroga|first=Tony|publisher=Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., Inc.|date=August 2009|pages=52}}</ref>

Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this time period. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to:
* the auto industry's successful [[United States federal courts|federal court]] challenge to California's [[zero-emissions vehicle]] mandate,
* a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousand EV1s and
* the success of the oil and auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of EVs.

A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled ''[[Who Killed the Electric Car?]]'' and released theatrically by [[Sony Pictures Classics]] in 2006. The film explores the roles of [[automobile manufacturer]]s, [[oil industry]], the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]], batteries, [[hydrogen (car)|hydrogen vehicles]], and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology.

Ford released a number of their [[Ford Ecostar]] delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its [[Toyota RAV4 EV|RAV4 EVs]]; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, [[BMW]] of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended.

The production of the [[Citroën Berlingo Electrique]] stopped in September 2005. [[Zenn]] started production in 2006 but ended by 2009.<ref>{{cite news |last=Freeman |first=Sunny |date=9 December 2009 |title=The end of Zenn |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/culture/technology/the-end-of-zenn/article4295000/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>

=== Reintroduction ===
{{multiple image |total_width=450
|image1=2020+ Electric vehicle stock - International Energy Agency.svg |caption1=The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.<ref name=IEA_GlobalEVoutlook_2023>{{cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 / Trends in electric light-duty vehicles |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512122042/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |archive-date=12 May 2023 |date=April 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>

|image2=2015- Passenger electric vehicle (EV) annual sales - BloombergNEF.svg |caption2=Sales of passenger electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230112>Data from {{cite news |last1=McKerracher |first1=Colin |title=Electric Vehicles Look Poised for Slower Sales Growth This Year |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-12/electric-vehicles-look-poised-for-slower-sales-growth-this-year |publisher=BloombergNEF |date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230112125649/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-12/electric-vehicles-look-poised-for-slower-sales-growth-this-year |archive-date=12 January 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}During the late 20th and early 21st century, the [[environmental issues with petroleum|environmental impact]] of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of [[peak oil]], led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure.<ref name="Eberle Von Helmolt2010">{{cite journal|title=Sustainable transportation based on EV concepts: a brief overview|journal=Energy & Environmental Science|volume=3|issue=6|pages=689|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224880220|last1=Eberle|first1=Ulrich|first2=Rittmar|last2=von Helmolt|date=14 May 2010|access-date=8 June 2010|issn=1754-5692|doi=10.1039/c001674h|archive-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021070726/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/224880220_Sustainable_transportation_based_on_electric_vehicle_concepts_a_brief_overview|url-status=live}}</ref> EVs differ from [[fossil fuel]]-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including [[fossil fuels]], [[nuclear power]], and renewables such [[solar power|as solar power]] and [[wind power]], or any combination of those.

The [[carbon footprint]] and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on the fuel and technology used for [[electricity generation]].<ref name="NotterKouravelou2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Notter|first1=Dominic A.|last2=Kouravelou|first2=Katerina|last3=Karachalios|first3=Theodoros|last4=Daletou|first4=Maria K.|last5=Haberland|first5=Nara Tudela|title=Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP|journal=Energy Environ. Sci.|volume=8|issue=7|pages=1969–1985|issn=1754-5692|doi=10.1039/C5EE01082A|date=3 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Notter|first1=Dominic A.|last2=Gauch|first2=Marcel|last3=Widmer|first3=Rolf|last4=Wäger|first4=Patrick|last5=Stamp|first5=Anna|last6=Zah|first6=Rainer|last7=Althaus|first7=Hans-Jörg|date=1 September 2010|title=Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=44|issue=17|pages=6550–6556|doi=10.1021/es903729a|pmid=20695466|issn=0013-936X|bibcode=2010EnST...44.6550N|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/2725414}}</ref> The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or [[supercapacitor]]s. Vehicles using [[internal combustion engines]] usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is [[regenerative braking]], which recovers [[kinetic energy]], typically lost during [[friction braking]] as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board battery.

== Electricity sources ==
There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability.
{{multiple image
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| image1            = 2402 'County of Hampshire' at Wool.JPG
| image2            = SwissMGB.jpg
| image3            = MZKT open day 2019 p06.jpg
| caption1          = A passenger train, taking power through a [[third rail]] with return through the traction rails
| caption2          = An [[electric locomotive]] at [[Brig, Switzerland|Brig]], Switzerland
| caption3          = The [[MAZ-7907]] uses an on-board generator to power [[in-wheel electric motor]]s.
}}

=== Connection to generator plants ===
* Direct connection to [[electric grid]]s as is common among [[electric locomotive|electric trains]], trams, [[trolleybus]]es, and [[trolleytruck]]s (See also: [[overhead lines]], [[third rail]] and [[conduit current collection]]) 
* [[Online electric vehicle]] collects power from electric power strips buried under the road surface through [[electromagnetic induction]]

=== Onboard generators and hybrid EVs ===
{{See also|Diesel–electric transmission|Petrol–electric transmission|Hybrid vehicle}}
* Generated on-board using a diesel engine: [[Diesel–electric transmission|diesel–electric]] locomotive and diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU)
* Generated on-board using a [[fuel cell]]: [[fuel cell vehicle]]
* Generated on-board using [[nuclear power|nuclear energy]]: nuclear [[submarine]]s and [[aircraft carrier]]s
* Renewable sources such as [[solar power]]: [[solar vehicle]]

It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as:
* On-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted highway range<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/12/worlds-first-electrified-road-for-charging-vehicles-opens-in-sweden|title=World's first electrified road for charging vehicles opens in Sweden|agency=Guardian|date=12 April 2018|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901021713/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/12/worlds-first-electrified-road-for-charging-vehicles-opens-in-sweden|url-status=live}}</ref>
* On-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source (internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid

For especially large EVs, such as [[submarine]]s, the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a [[nuclear reactor]]. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a [[steam turbine]], which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. ''See [[Nuclear marine propulsion]].''

A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity.

=== Onboard storage ===
{{electric vehicle}}
These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed.
* Full Electric Vehicles (FEV).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=D.B.|title=Electric vehicles and the electric grid: A review of modeling approaches, Impacts, and renewable energy integration|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=19|pages=247–254|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.042|date=March 2013}}</ref> Power storage methods include:
** [[Chemical energy]] stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: [[Battery electric vehicle]] (BEV) typically with a [[lithium-ion]] battery
** Kinetic energy storage: [[Gyrobus|flywheels]]
** Static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board [[electric double-layer capacitor]]s

Batteries, [[electric double-layer capacitor]]s and [[flywheel energy storage]] are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the [[energy conversion efficiency]] can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chaofeng |last2=Neale |first2=Zachary G. |last3=Cao |first3=Guozhong |title=Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries |journal=Materials Today |date=1 March 2016 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=109–123 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2015.10.009 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Lithium-ion battery ==
[[File:2010- Battery prices for electric vehicles.svg |thumb|Battery prices fell, given economies of scale and new cell chemistries improving energy density.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20220721/> However, general inflationary pressures, and rising costs of raw materials and components, inhibited price declines in the early 2020s.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20220721>{{cite web |title=Race to Net Zero: The Pressures of the Battery Boom in Five Charts |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/race-to-net-zero-the-pressures-of-the-battery-boom-in-five-charts/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907222616/https://about.bnef.com/blog/race-to-net-zero-the-pressures-of-the-battery-boom-in-five-charts/ |archive-date=7 September 2023 |date=21 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:First-electric-bus.jpg|thumb|Namsan E-Bus, the first commercially used [[battery electric bus]] system which is powered with [[lithium-ion batteries]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Medimorec |first1=Nikola |title=Namsan E-Bus, First Commercial Electric Bus Worldwide |url=https://kojects.com/2013/02/08/namsan-e-bus-first-commercial-electric-bus-worldwide/ |website=Kojects|date=8 February 2013 }}</ref>]]
{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}

Most electric vehicles use [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]] (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium-ion batteries have a higher [[energy density]], longer [[Rechargeable battery#Lifespan and cycle stability|life span]], and higher [[power density]] than most other practical batteries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armand |first1=Michel |last2=Axmann |first2=Peter |last3=Bresser |first3=Dominic |last4=Copley |first4=Mark |last5=Edström |first5=Kristina |last6=Ekberg |first6=Christian |last7=Guyomard |first7=Dominique |last8=Lestriez |first8=Bernard |last9=Novák |first9=Petr |last10=Petranikova |first10=Martina |last11=Porcher |first11=Willy |last12=Trabesinger |first12=Sigita |last13=Wohlfahrt-Mehrens |first13=Margret |last14=Zhang |first14=Heng |date=2020-12-15 |title=Lithium-ion batteries – Current state of the art and anticipated developments |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775320310120 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=479 |pages=228708 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228708 |bibcode=2020JPS...47928708A |s2cid=225154703 |issn=0378-7753}}</ref> Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown,  [[Lithium-ion battery#Environmental impact|environmental impact]], and [[Rechargeable battery#Price history|cost]]. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to operate safely and efficiently.<ref name="LuHan2013">{{Cite journal | issn =  0378-7753 | doi =  10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060 | title = A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 226| pages = 272–288 | year = 2013 | last1 = Lu | first1 = L. | last2 = Han | first2 = X. | last3 = Li | first3 = J. | last4 = Hua | first4 = J. | last5 = Ouyang | first5 = M. | bibcode = 2013JPS...226..272L}}</ref>

Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.<ref name="AdanyAurbach2013">{{cite journal|last=Adany|first=Ron|title=Switching algorithms for extending battery life in Electric Vehicles |issn = 0378-7753 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.075 | volume = 231 |  journal = Journal of Power Sources | pages=50–59 | date=June 2013}}</ref>

In the past, [[nickel–metal hydride battery|nickel–metal hydride batteries]] were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mok|first1=Brian|title=Types of Batteries Used for Electric Vehicles|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mok2/|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219170848/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mok2/|url-status=live}}</ref> These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Batteries for Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicles|url=https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html|website=afdc.energy.gov|publisher=AFDC|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033936/https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, a patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chevron and EVs – GM, Chevron and CARB killed the sole NiMH EV once, will do so again|url=http://www.ev1.org/chevron.htm|website=ev1.org|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122194807/http://www.ev1.org/chevron.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Aditya|first1=Jayam|last2=Ferdowsi|first2=Mehdi|title=Comparison of NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications|url=https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1667&context=ele_comeng_facwork|publisher=Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034302/https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1667&context=ele_comeng_facwork|url-status=live}}</ref>

The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in the price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 – Data product |url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/global-ev-outlook-2023 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bloomberg's Latest Forecast Predicts Rapidly Falling Battery Prices|url=https://insideevs.com/bloomberg-predicts-rapidly-falling-battery-prices/|date=21 June 2018|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=8 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108135610/https://insideevs.com/bloomberg-predicts-rapidly-falling-battery-prices/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Electric motor ==
[[File:Iveco Stralis AD 190 E-truck. Lidl. Spielvogel.jpg|thumb|[[Electric truck]] e-Force One]]
{{Main|3 = Traction motor}}

The power of a vehicle's electric motor, as in other machines, is measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100&nbsp;kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with a 100&nbsp;kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed.

Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Voelcker|first=John|date=2021-04-10|title=EVs Explained: Charging Losses|url=https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a36062942/evs-explained-charging-losses/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=Car and Driver|language=en-US|archive-date=27 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727173913/https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a36062942/evs-explained-charging-losses/|url-status=live}}</ref> and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Usually, [[direct current]] (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to [[alternating current]] (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.

For electric trains, [[forklift truck]]s, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, [[universal motor]]s are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, [[induction motor]]s within [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla Motor]] vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.<ref name="WidmerMartin2015">{{Cite journal|title = Electric vehicle traction motors without rare earth magnets|last = Widmar|first = Martin|year = 2015 | journal = Sustainable Materials and Technologies |issn=2214-9937 |doi= 10.1016/j.susmat.2015.02.001 |volume=3|pages=7–13|doi-access = free}}</ref>

== Energy and motors ==
[[File:Electric powertrain.jpg|thumb|An electric powertrain used by [[Power Vehicle Innovation]] for trucks or buses<ref>{{cite web |title=Electric Driveline Technology – PVI, leader de la traction électrique pour véhicules industriels |url=http://www.pvi.fr/chaines-de-traction-electriques,019.html?lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325035014/http://www.pvi.fr/chaines-de-traction-electriques,019.html?lang=en |archive-date=25 March 2012 |access-date=30 March 2012 |publisher=Pvi.fr}}</ref>]]

Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of [[regenerative braking]], in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable if the system is large enough to use the power generated by descending vehicles.

In the systems above, motion is provided by a [[Rotary motor|rotary]] electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These [[linear motor]]s are used in [[maglev train]]s which float above the rails supported by [[magnetic levitation]]. This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, [[Railroad switch|switching]] and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services.

== Vehicle types ==
[[File:Squad Solar Car (Fully Charged 2022).jpg|thumb|[[Neighborhood Electric Vehicle]], [[Squad Solar]] NEV, with solar panel roof]]
It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power-train.

=== Ground vehicles ===
==== Pure-electric vehicles ====
{{See also|Electric car|Battery electric vehicle}}
A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is powered exclusively through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery ([[battery electric vehicle]]), solar panel ([[solar vehicle]]) or fuel cell ([[fuel cell vehicle]]).

==== Hybrid EVs ====
{{Excerpt|Hybrid electric vehicle|paragraph=1,2|files=no}}
There are different ways that a hybrid electric vehicle can combine the power from an electric motor and the internal combustion engine. The most common type is a '''parallel hybrid''' that connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. In this scenario, the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly. '''Series hybrids''' only use the electric motor to drive the wheels and can often be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs). There are also '''series-parallel hybrids''' where the vehicle can be powered by the engine working alone, the electric motor on its own, or by both working together; this is designed so that the engine can run at its optimum range as often as possible.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.power-sonic.com/blog/types-of-electric-vehicles/|title=Electric Vehicles Types – A Complete Guide to Types of EV – EVESCO|date=18 March 2022|website=Power Sonic |last1=Spendiff-Smith |first1=Matthew }}</ref>

==== Plug-in electric vehicle ====
{{Main|Plug-in electric vehicle}}
{{See also|Plug-in hybrid|Electric car}}
[[File:2022 Togg C-SUV.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Togg C-SUV]]<ref name="insideevs">{{cite web|url=https://insideevs.com/news/620213/turkey-national-carmaker-togg-starts-production-2023-c-suv-ev/|title=Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV|website=insideevs.com|author=Dan Mihalascu|date=4 November 2022}}</ref> produced by [[Togg]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.togg.com.tr/|title=TOGG Official Website|publisher=togg.com.tr|accessdate=3 April 2020}}</ref> a [[Automotive industry in Turkey|Turkish automotive company]] established in 2018 for producing EVs.<ref name="Jay Ramey">{{cite web|url=https://www.autoweek.com/news/green-cars/a30355931/turkey-bets-on-evs-with-the-pininfarina-designed-togg/|title=Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG|author=Jay Ramey|publisher=autoweek.com|date=30 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Togg-2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/a-game-changer-t%C3%BCrkiye-inaugurates-its-first-national-car-plant-62068|title='A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant|publisher=[[TRT World]]|date=30 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="insideevs"/>]]

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any [[motor vehicle]] that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as [[wall socket]]s, and the electricity stored in the [[Rechargeable battery]] packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes [[battery electric vehicle]]s (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and [[electric vehicle conversion]]s of [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s and conventional [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles.<ref name=PEVs>{{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor=[[David B. Sandalow]]|year=2009|publisher=[[The Brookings Institution]]|isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1|edition=1st.|url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx|pages=2–5|access-date=7 July 2013|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104012/https://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx/|url-status=live}} ''See definition on pp. 2.''</ref><ref name=CSE>{{cite web|url=http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles|title=Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)|publisher=Center for Sustainable Energy, California|access-date=31 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620210051/http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles|archive-date=20 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp|title=PEV Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=[[Duke Energy]]|access-date=24 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327101552/http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp|archive-date=27 March 2012}}</ref>

==== Range-extended electric vehicle ====
{{see also|Range extender}}
A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine is used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary source of power.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Electric road vehicles in the European Union|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/637895/EPRS_BRI(2019)637895_EN.pdf|access-date=24 October 2020|website=europa.eu|archive-date=14 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214170441/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/637895/EPRS_BRI(2019)637895_EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== On- and off-road EVs ====
On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric trolleybuses, [[electric bus]]es, [[battery electric bus]]es, [[electric truck]]s, [[electric bicycle]]s, [[electric motorcycles and scooters]], [[personal transporter]]s, [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s, [[golf cart]]s, [[milk float]]s, and [[forklift truck|forklifts]]. [[Off-road vehicle]]s include electrified [[all-terrain vehicle]]s and [[electric tractor]]s.

==== Railborne EVs ====
{{Main|Railway electrification system}}
[[File:2001-03-31.H-TW2000-Vahrenwalder-Platz.jpg|thumb|left|A [[streetcar]] (or tram) in [[Hanover]] drawing current from a single overhead wire through a [[pantograph (rail)|pantograph]]]]

The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through permanent [[overhead lines]] or electrified [[third rail]]s, eliminating the need for heavy onboard batteries. [[Electric locomotive]]s, [[electric multiple unit]]s, electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric [[light rail system]]s, and electric [[rapid transit]] are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia.

Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good [[power-to-weight ratio]]s. This allows [[high speed train]]s such as France's double-deck [[TGV]]s to operate at speeds of 320&nbsp;km/h (200&nbsp;mph) or higher, and [[electric locomotive]]s to have a much higher power output than [[diesel locomotive]]s. In addition, they have higher short-term [[overcurrent|surge power]] for fast acceleration, and using [[regenerative brake]]s can put braking power back into the [[electrical grid]] rather than wasting it.

[[Maglev (transport)|Maglev]] trains are also nearly always EVs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |work=North American Maglev Transport Institute |title=-Maglev Technology Explained |date=1 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727110924/http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |archive-date=27 July 2011  }}</ref>

There are also [[battery electric multiple unit|battery electric passenger trains]] operating on non-electrified rail lines.

=== Seaborne EVs ===
{{See also|Submarine#Propulsion|Ship#Propulsion systems|electric boat}}
[[File:Oceanvolt sd8.6 electric saildrive motor.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Oceanvolt]] SD8.6 electric saildrive motor]]

[[Electric boat]]s were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as [[solar cells]] have given [[motorboat]]s the infinite range of [[sailboats]]. Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oceanvolt.com/|title=Oceanvolt – Complete Electric Motor Systems|work=Oceanvolt|access-date=30 November 2012|archive-date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224075726/http://www.oceanvolt.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> Electric ferries operate routinely.<ref>Stensvold, Tore. "[http://www.tu.no/industri/2015/08/14/siemens-lonnsomt-a-bytte-ut-70-prosent-av-fergene-med-batteri--eller-hybridferger Lønnsomt å bytte ut 70 prosent av fergene med batteri- eller hybridferger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105150735/http://www.tu.no/industri/2015/08/14/siemens-lonnsomt-a-bytte-ut-70-prosent-av-fergene-med-batteri--eller-hybridferger |date=5 January 2016 }}" ''[[Teknisk Ukeblad]]'', 14. August 2015.</ref> [[Submarine]]s use batteries (charged by [[Diesel-electric transmission|diesel]] or gasoline engines at the surface), [[nuclear submarine|nuclear]] power, fuel cells<ref>{{cite news|work=Defense Industry Daily|title=S-80: A Sub, for Spain, to Sail Out on the Main|date=15 December 2008|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/s80-a-sub-for-spain-to-sail-out-on-the-main-02517/|access-date=17 December 2009|archive-date=24 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224231309/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/s80-a-sub-for-spain-to-sail-out-on-the-main-02517/|url-status=live}}</ref> or [[Stirling engine]]s to run electric motor-driven propellers.

=== Airborne EVs ===
[[File:Mars helicopter on sol 46.png|thumb|upright|[[Ingenuity (helicopter)|Mars helicopter ''Ingenuity'']]]]
{{Main|Electric aircraft}}
Since the beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying [[electric aircraft]] include piloted and unpiloted aerial vehicles.

=== Electrically powered spacecraft ===
{{Main|Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion}}
Electric power has a long history of use in [[spacecraft]].<ref name='Ion 1964'>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/ds1.html|title=Contributions to Deep Space 1|date=14 April 2015|access-date=4 August 2016|archive-date=10 December 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210153451/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/ds1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cybulski">{{cite web|first1=Ronald J.|last1=Cybulski|first2=Daniel M.|last2=Shellhammer|first3=Robert R.|last3=Lovell|first4=Edward J.|last4=Domino|first5=Joseph T.|last5=Kotnik|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19650009681/downloads/19650009681.pdf|title=Results from SERT I Ion Rocket Flight Test|id=NASA-TN-D-2718|publisher=[[NASA]]|date=1965|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112201249/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19650009681/downloads/19650009681.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with electricity include the [[arcjet rocket]], the [[electrostatic ion thruster]], the [[Hall-effect thruster]], and [[Field Emission Electric Propulsion]].

==== Space rover vehicles ====
{{Main|Rover (space exploration)}}
Crewed and uncrewed vehicles have been used to explore the [[Moon]] and other planets in the [[Solar System]]. On the last three missions of the [[Apollo program]] in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove [[silver-oxide battery]]-powered [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]]s distances up to {{convert|35.7|km|mi|sp=us}} on the lunar surface.<ref>Lyons, Pete; "10 Best Ahead-of-Their-Time Machines", ''Car and Driver'', Jan. 1988, p.78</ref> Uncrewed, [[photovoltaics|solar-powered]] rovers have explored the Moon and [[Mars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/technology/bb_power.html|title=Technologies of Broad Benefit: Power|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118021407/http://mars.nasa.gov/mer/technology/bb_power.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100318.html|title=Soviet Union Lunar Rovers|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102212854/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100318.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Records ==
[[File:Harley Davidson LiveWire right noBG.jpg|thumb|World record on an [[Electric motorcycles and scooters|electric motorcycle]] by [[Michel von Tell]] on a [[LiveWire (company)|LiveWire]] in 2020]]
* [[Rimac Nevera]], an electric hypercar, set 23 world speed records in one day.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ulrich |first1=Lawrence |title=Rimac Nevera EV Sets 23 World Speed Records: Zero to 400 kilometers per hour and back again in under 30 seconds was just one of them |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/rimac-nevera-record |publisher=IEEE Spectrum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Doll |first1=Scooter |title=Rimac Nevera electric hypercar sets 23 records in single day, including fastest 0–249 mph time |url=https://electrek.co/2023/05/17/rimac-nevera-electric-hypercar-sets-records-single-day-fastest-time/ |publisher=Electrek}}</ref>
* Fastest acceleration of an electric car, 0 to 100&nbsp;km/h in 1.461 seconds by university students at the University of Stuttgart.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Addow |first1=Amina |title=Electric car goes from 0 to 100 km/h in 1.461 seconds |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/corporate/2022/12/electric-car-goes-from-0-to-100-km-h-in-1-461-seconds-730325 |publisher=Guinness World Records}}</ref>
* Electric Land Speed Record {{cvt|353|mph|km/h}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=interestingengineering.com |date=November 2021 |url=https://interestingengineering.com/little-giant-broke-electric-land-speed-record-353-mph}}</ref>
* Electric Car Distance Record {{convert|1725|mi|km}} in 24 hours by [[Bjørn Nyland (YouTuber)|Bjørn Nyland]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Holl |first=Maximilian |date=2019-07-05 |title=Tesla Model 3 Breaks World EV Distance Record — {{cvt|2,781|km|mi|abbr=in}} Travelled in 24 Hours |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2019/07/05/tesla-model-3-breaks-ev-distance-record-2781-km-1728-miles-travelled-in-24-hours/ |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}}</ref> 
* Greatest distance by electric vehicle, single charge {{convert|999.5|mi|km}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greatest distance by electric vehicle, single charge (non-solar) |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/greatest-distance-by-electric-vehicle-single-charge-(non-solar) |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=Guinness World Records |date=16 October 2017 |language=en-gb}}</ref>
* Solar-powered EV is fastest EV to go over 1,000&nbsp;km without stopping to recharge, the Sunswift 7.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jamieson |first1=Craig |title=This solar-powered EV is a world-record-breaking speed machine* |url=https://www.topgear.com/car-news/electric/solar-powered-ev-world-record-breaking-speed-machine |website=BBC Top Gear |publisher=BBC Studios}}</ref>
* Electric Motorcycle: {{convert|1070|mi|km}} under 24 hours. [[Michel von Tell]] on a Harley LiveWire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harley-Davidson's LiveWire EV {{!}} GreenCars |url=https://www.greencars.com/post/harley-davidsons-livewire-ev |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=www.greencars.com |language=en}}</ref>
* Electric flight: {{convert|439.5|mi|km}} without charge.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Toll |first=Micah |date=2020-08-29 |title=Believe it or not, this electric plane is set to break 7 world records in one trip |url=https://electrek.co/2020/08/29/believe-it-or-not-this-electric-plane-is-set-to-break-7-world-records-in-one-trip/ |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=Electrek |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Properties ==
=== Components ===
The type of [[Electric vehicle battery|battery]], the type of [[traction motor]] and the [[motor controller]] design vary according to the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a [[motorized shopping cart]] or [[wheelchair]], through [[pedelec]]s, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial [[fork-lift truck]]s and including many hybrid vehicles.

=== Energy sources ===
EVs are much more efficient than fossil fuel vehicles and have few direct emissions. At the same time, they do rely on electrical energy that is generally provided by a combination of non-fossil fuel plants and fossil fuel plants. Consequently, EVs can be made less polluting overall by modifying the source of electricity. In some areas, persons can ask utilities to provide their electricity from renewable energy.

[[Fossil fuel]] vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or [[Driving in Singapore|Singapore]], forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.

=== Batteries ===
{{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
[[File:Lithium iron phosphate battery, 12 V, 48 Wh, 240 A.jpg|thumb|upright|Lithium ion battery for motorbikes or powersport vehicles]]
An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) in addition to the traction battery specialty systems used for industrial (or recreational) vehicles, are batteries used to power the propulsion system of a battery electric vehicle (BEVs). These batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery, and are typically lithium-ion batteries.

Traction batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.<ref name="Seitz1994">{{cite journal | last1 = Seitz | first1 = C.W. | title = Industrial battery technologies and markets | journal = IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine | date = May 1994 | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = 10–15 | issn = 0885-8985 | doi = 10.1109/62.282509 | pmid = | url =https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/282509|access-date=3 September 2022}}</ref><ref name="Tofield1985">{{cite book | title = Solid State Batteries | last1 = Tofield | first1 = Bruce C. | chapter = Future Prospects for All-Solid-State Batteries | date = 1985 | pages = 424 | publisher = Springer Netherlands | doi = 10.1007/978-94-009-5167-9_29 | isbn = 978-94-010-8786-5 | chapter-url =https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-5167-9_29|access-date=3 September 2022}}</ref>

=== Efficiency ===
EVs convert over 59–62% of grid energy to the wheels. Conventional gasoline vehicles convert around 17–21%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml|title=All-Electric Vehicles|website=www.fueleconomy.gov|language=en|access-date=2020-01-19|archive-date=17 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217133256/http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Charging ===
==== Grid capacity ====
If almost all road vehicles were electric it would increase global demand for electricity by up to 25% by 2050 compared to 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EVO Report 2021 {{!}} BloombergNEF {{!}} Bloomberg Finance LP|url=https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=BloombergNEF|language=en-US|archive-date=27 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727173908/https://about.bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, overall energy consumption and emissions would diminish because of the higher efficiency of EVs over the entire cycle, and the reduction in energy needed to refine fossil fuels.

==== Charging stations ====
{{Excerpt|Charging station}}

==== Battery swapping ====
Instead of recharging EVs from electric sockets, batteries could be mechanically replaced at special stations in a few minutes ([[battery swapping]]).

Batteries with greater [[energy density]] such as metal-air fuel cells cannot always be recharged in a purely electric way, so some form of mechanical recharge may be used instead. A [[zinc–air battery]], technically a [[fuel cell]], is difficult to recharge electrically so may be "refueled" by periodically replacing the anode or electrolyte instead.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dobley |first1=Arthur |editor1-last=Suib |editor1-first=Steven |title=New and Future Developments in Catalysis: Batteries, Hydrogen Storage and Fuel Cells |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wibl94fdtEC |access-date=29 October 2022 |chapter=1: Catalytic Batteries|isbn=9780444538819 }}</ref>

==== Dynamic charging ====
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ [[Swedish Transport Administration electric road program|Dynamic charging technologies tested in Sweden]]<ref name="TRL">{{citation|url=https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf|title=Electric Road Systems: a solution for the future|author1=D Bateman|author2=D Leal|display-authors=1|publisher=[[Transport Research Laboratory|TRL]]|date=October 8, 2018|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803034309/https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01">{{citation |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/om-oss/pressrum/pressmeddelanden/Nationellt/2021/2021-02/trafikverket-rekommenderar-elvag-i-kombination-med-stationar-laddning/ |title=Analysera förutsättningar och planera för en utbyggnad av elvägar |publisher=[[Swedish Transport Administration]] |date=February 2, 2021 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203035627/https://www.trafikverket.se/om-oss/pressrum/pressmeddelanden/Nationellt/2021/2021-02/trafikverket-rekommenderar-elvag-i-kombination-med-stationar-laddning/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="regulations-2021">{{citation |title=Regler för statliga elvägar SOU 2021:73 |url=https://www.regeringen.se/4a5530/contentassets/37e1f87a819e48ff9c79d615ff8fd8ec/sou-2021_73.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902072110/https://www.regeringen.se/4a5530/contentassets/37e1f87a819e48ff9c79d615ff8fd8ec/sou-2021_73.pdf |archive-date=September 2, 2021 |date=September 1, 2021 |publisher=Regeringskansliet (Government Offices of Sweden) |pages=69–87}}</ref>
|-
! Type{{clear}}(and developer)!! Power per{{clear}}receiver{{clear}}{{small|(and power{{clear}}pending further{{clear}}development)}} !! Million [[Swedish krona|SEK]]{{clear}}per km road{{clear}}both ways!! References
|-
|[[Overhead line|Overhead power{{clear}}lines]] ([[Siemens]]) || 650&nbsp;kW{{clear}}(1000&nbsp;kW) || 12.4 ||<ref name="TRL"/>{{Rp|140–144}}{{clear}}<ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />{{Rp|23–24,54}}
|-
|[[Ground-level power supply]]{{clear}}through in-road rail{{clear}}([[#Elways|Elways]] and [[NCC (company)|NCC]] consortium) || 200&nbsp;kW{{clear}}(800&nbsp;kW) || 9.4–10.5 ||<ref name="TRL"/>{{Rp|146–149}}{{clear}}<ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />{{Rp|21–23,54}}
|-
|Ground-level power supply{{clear}}through on-road rail{{clear}}([[Elonroad]] and [[ABB]] consortium)|| 150&nbsp;kW{{clear}}(500&nbsp;kW) || 11.5–15.3 ||<ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />{{Rp|25–26,54}}
|-
|[[Wireless power transfer]]{{clear}}through in-road{{clear}}[[Inductive charging#Transportation|inductive coils]] ([[Electreon]]) || 25&nbsp;kW{{clear}}(40&nbsp;kW)|| 19.5–20.8 ||<ref name="TRL"/>{{Rp|171–172}}{{clear}}<ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />{{Rp|26–28,54}}
|}

[[Transport Research Laboratory|TRL]] (formerly Transport Research Laboratory) lists three power delivery types for [[dynamic charging]], or charging while the vehicle is in motion: [[overhead line|overhead power lines]], and [[Ground-level power supply|ground level power]] through rail or [[Inductive charging#Dynamic charging|induction]]. TRL lists overhead power as the most technologically mature solution which provides the highest levels of power, but the technology is unsuitable for non-commercial vehicles. Ground-level power is suitable for all vehicles, with rail being a mature solution with high transfer of power and easily accessible and inspected elements. Inductive charging delivers the least power and requires more roadside equipment than the alternatives.<ref name="TRL" />{{rp|at=Appendix D}}

The [[European Commission]] published in 2021 a request for regulation and standardization of electric road systems.<ref>{{citation| url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52021PC0559&from=EN |title=Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, and repealing Directive 2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council |date=July 14, 2021 |author=[[European Commission]]}}</ref> Shortly afterward, a working group of the [[Ministry of the Ecological Transition (France)|French Ministry of Ecology]] recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others.<ref name="FR-1">{{citation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021080727/https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/GT1%20rapport%20final.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2021 |url=https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/GT1%20rapport%20final.pdf |title=Système de route électrique. Groupe de travail n°1 |author=Patrick Pélata |display-authors=etal | date=July 2021}}</ref> The first standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), [[European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization|CENELEC]] Technical Standard 50717, has been approved in late 2022.<ref name="TS50717">{{citation |url=https://standardsdevelopment.bsigroup.com/projects/2020-03529 |title=PD CLC/TS 50717 Technical Requirements for Current Collectors for ground-level feeding system on road vehicles in operation |website=[[BSI Group|The British Standards Institution]] |year=2022 |accessdate=January 2, 2023 |archive-date=January 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102072415/https://standardsdevelopment.bsigroup.com/projects/2020-03529}}</ref> Following standards, encompassing "full interoperability" and a "unified and interoperable solution" for ground-level power supply, are scheduled to be published by the end 2024, detailing complete "specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road".<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.snv.ch/files/content/documents/News%20und%20Newslettertexte/CEN_CENELEC_BT-Dokument.pdf |title=Final draft: Standardization request to CEN-CENELEC on 'Alternative fuels infrastructure' (AFI II) |date=February 2, 2022 |publisher=[[European Commission]] |access-date=2 January 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408092049/https://www.snv.ch/files/content/documents/News%20und%20Newslettertexte/CEN_CENELEC_BT-Dokument.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://electric-road-systems.eu/e-r-systems-wAssets/docs/publications/CollERS-2-Discussion-paper-2-Regulatory-issues.pdf |title=Regulating Electric Road Systems in Europe – How can a deployment of ERS be facilitated? |publisher=CollERS2 – Swedish German research collaboration on Electric Road Systems |author=Matts Andersson |date=July 4, 2022}}</ref>
{{Further|topic=the high-power charging station network|Ionna}}

=== Other in-development technologies ===
{{Main|Electric double-layer capacitor}}{{Expand section|1=up-to-date information|date=July 2021}}
Conventional [[electric double-layer capacitor]]s are being worked on to achieve the energy density of lithium-ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. High-K electric double-layer capacitors, such as [[EEStor]]'s EESU, could improve lithium ion energy density several times over if they can be produced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer {{nowrap|250 Wh/kg}}.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Electrochimica Acta : Effect of cathode component on the energy density of lithium–sulfur battery |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2004.05.048 |volume=50 |issue=2–3 |journal=Electrochimica Acta |pages=833–835|date=30 November 2004 |last1=Choi |first1=Yun Seok |last2=Kim |first2=Seok |last3=Choi |first3=Soo Seok |last4=Han |first4=Ji Sung |last5=Kim |first5=Jan Dee |last6=Jeon |first6=Sang Eun |last7=Jung |first7=Bok Hwan }}</ref> Sodium-ion batteries promise {{nowrap|400 Wh/kg}} with only minimal expansion/contraction during charge/discharge and a very high surface area, and rely on lower cost materials than Lithium-ion, Leading to Cheaper batteries that do not require critical minerals.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Safety ===
{{Expand section|1=up-to-date information|date=July 2021}}
The United Nations in Geneva ([[UNECE]]) has adopted the first international regulation (Regulation 100) on safety of both fully electric and hybrid electric cars, with the intent of ensuring that cars with a [[high voltage]] electric power train, such as hybrid and fully-electric vehicles, are as safe as combustion-powered cars. The EU and Japan have already indicated that they intend to incorporate the new UNECE Regulation in their respective rules on technical standards for vehicles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/260&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en |title=EUROPA Press Releases – Car safety: European Commission welcomes international agreement on electric and hybrid cars |publisher=Europa (web portal) |date=10 March 2010 |access-date=26 June 2010 |archive-date=16 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416175327/http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP%2F10%2F260&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Environmental ===
{{Sustainable energy}}
{{See also|Environmental aspects of the electric car|Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries|Environmental impact of the petroleum industry}}
[[File:Battery-cost-learning-curve.png|thumb| [[Learning curve]] of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziegler |first1=Micah S. |last2=Trancik |first2=Jessika E. |date=2021 |title=Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=D0EE02681F |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=1635–1651 |doi=10.1039/D0EE02681F |s2cid=220830992 |issn=1754-5692|doi-access=free |arxiv=2007.13920 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades |url=https://ourworldindata.org/battery-price-decline |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref>]]
EVs release no tailpipe air pollutants, and reduce respiratory illnesses such as [[asthma]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Erika |last2=Johnston |first2=Jill |last3=McConnell |first3=Rob |last4=Palinkas |first4=Lawrence |last5=Eckel |first5=Sandrah P. |date=2023-04-01 |title=California's early transition to electric vehicles: Observed health and air quality co-benefits |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=867 |pages=161761 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161761 |pmid=36739036 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.867p1761G |s2cid=256572849 |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free |pmc=10465173 |pmc-embargo-date=April 1, 2024 }}</ref> However, EVs are charged with electricity that may be [[electricity generation|generated]] by means that have health and environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalek |last2=Chester |last3=Jaramillo |last4=Samaras |last5=Shiau |last6=Lave |title=Valuation of plug-in vehicle life cycle air emissions and oil displacement benefits |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2011 |volume=108 |issue=40 |pages=16554–16558 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104473108 |pmid=21949359 |pmc=3189019 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10816554M |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tessum |last2=Hill |last3=Marshall |title=Life cycle air quality impacts of conventional and alternative light-duty transportation in the United States |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=2014 |volume=111 |issue=52 |pages=18490–18495 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1406853111 |pmid=25512510 |pmc=4284558 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11118490T |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are in the majority of cases less than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars {{!}} International Council on Clean Transportation|url=https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021|access-date=2021-07-29|website=theicct.org|archive-date=9 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109182656/https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021|url-status=live}}</ref> EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-11-01|title=Assessing the health impacts of electric vehicles through air pollution in the United States|journal=Environment International|language=en|volume=144|pages=106015|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2020.106015|issn=0160-4120|last1=Choma|first1=Ernani F.|last2=Evans|first2=John S.|last3=Hammitt|first3=James K.|last4=Gómez-Ibáñez|first4=José A.|last5=Spengler|first5=John D.|pmid=32858467|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020EnInt.14406015C }}</ref>

One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from [[Internal combustion engine|ICEs]] to EVs will not free up road space for [[Active mobility|active travel]] or public transport.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gössling|first=Stefan|date=2020-07-03|title=Why cities need to take road space from cars – and how this could be done|journal=Journal of Urban Design|volume=25|issue=4|pages=443–448|doi=10.1080/13574809.2020.1727318|issn=1357-4809|doi-access=free}}</ref> Electric [[micromobility]] vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.<ref>{{Cite web|title=e-bike carbon savings – how much and where? – CREDS|date=18 May 2020 |url=https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/e-bike-carbon-savings-how-much-and-where/|access-date=2021-04-13|language=en-GB|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413161629/https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/e-bike-carbon-savings-how-much-and-where/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Internal combustion engined vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Electric Cars Need Way Less Raw Materials Than ICE Vehicles|url=https://insideevs.com/news/491330/electric-cars-less-raw-materials-ice-vehicles/|access-date=2021-07-28|website=InsideEVs|language=en|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728152022/https://insideevs.com/news/491330/electric-cars-less-raw-materials-ice-vehicles/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Lithium-ion batteries ====
Since their first commercial release in 1991, lithium-ion batteries have become an important technology for achieving low-carbon transportation systems.  Information regarding the sustainability of production process of batteries has become a politically charged topic.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Agusdinata|first1=Datu Buyung|last2=Liu|first2=Wenjuan|last3=Eakin|first3=Hallie|last4=Romero|first4=Hugo|date=2018-11-27|title=Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=13|issue=12|pages=123001|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1|issn=1748-9326|bibcode=2018ERL....13l3001B|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{Obsolete source|reason=surely there is a lot of research by now?|date=April 2023}}

Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed standards on the governance of technology worldwide.<ref name=":0" />

The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and [[Natural environment|environmental]] commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schöggl|first1=Josef-Peter|last2=Fritz|first2=Morgane M.C.|last3=Baumgartner|first3=Rupert J.|date=September 2016|title=Toward supply chain-wide sustainability assessment: a conceptual framework and an aggregation method to assess supply chain performance|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=131|pages=822–835|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.035|issn=0959-6526}}</ref>

One source estimates that over a fifth of the [[lithium]] and about 65% of the [[cobalt]] needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035.<ref name=":5" /> On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/electric-car-batteries-need-far-less-raw-materials-fossil-fuel-cars-study/ "Electric car batteries need far less raw materials than fossil-fuel cars – study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102051847/https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/electric-car-batteries-need-far-less-raw-materials-fossil-fuel-cars-study/ |date=2 November 2021 }}". ''transportenvironment.org''. Retrieved 1 November 2021.</ref>

In 2022, the manufacturing of an EV emitted on average around 50% more CO2 than an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle, but this difference is more than offset by the much higher emissions from the oil used in driving an internal combustion engine Vehicle over its lifetime compared to those from generating the electricity used for driving the EV.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Energy Technology Perspectives 2023 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2023 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2023, Greenpeace issued a video criticizing the view that EVs are "silver bullet for climate", arguing that the construction phase has a high environmental impact. For example, the rise in [[SUV]] sales by [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]] almost eliminate the climate benefits of passing to EV in this company, because even electric SUVs have a high carbon footprint as they consume much raw materials and energy during construction. Greenpeace proposes a [[mobility as a service]] concept instead, based on biking, public transport and ride sharing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Myths Shattered: The Truth About Electric Cars in Today's Auto Industry |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twV5pSjUK88 |website=Greenpeace international |access-date=21 November 2023}}</ref>

=== Socio-economic ===
A 2003 study in the United Kingdom found that "[p]ollution is most concentrated in areas where young children and their parents are more likely to live and least concentrated in areas to which the elderly tend to migrate," and that "those communities that are most polluted and which also emit the least pollution tend to be amongst the poorest in Britain."<ref>Mitchell G, Dorling D. An Environmental Justice Analysis of British Air Quality. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 2003;35(5):909–929. doi:10.1068/a35240</ref> A 2019 UK study found that "households in the poorest areas emit the least NOx and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Joanna H. |last2=Chatterton |first2=Tim J. |last3=Longhurst |first3=James W.S. |title=Emissions vs exposure: Increasing injustice from road traffic-related air pollution in the United Kingdom |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |date=August 2019 |volume=73 |pages=56–66 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2019.05.012 |s2cid=197455092 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Mechanical ===
[[File:Tesla Motors Model S base.JPG|thumb|[[Tesla Model S]] chassis with drive motor]]
[[File:Tesla Model S motor cutout.jpg|thumb|Cutaway view of a [[Tesla Model S]] drive motor]]
Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% [[energy conversion efficiency]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.projectbetterplace.com/images/resources/factsheet_projectbetterplace.pdf|title=Better Place}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with [[regenerative braking]] systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for [[Transmission (mechanics)|gearboxes]] and [[torque converter]]s.

EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and [[vibration]] than internal combustion engines.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">{{cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |title=Transport: Electric vehicles|publisher=European Commission |access-date=19 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319033116/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |archive-date=19 March 2011 }}</ref> While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate [[Electric vehicle warning sounds|warning sounds]] when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601109&sid=aIqaK2fByA.8 |title=Nissan Adds 'Beautiful' Noise to Make Silent Electric Cars Safe |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=18 September 2009 |access-date=12 February 2010 }}</ref>

Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for [[submarine]]s and for [[Rover (space exploration)|space rovers]].

=== Energy resilience ===
Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources; therefore, it gives the greatest degree of [[energy resilience]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future |title=Our Electric Future – The American, A Magazine of Ideas |publisher=American.com |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825064622/http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future/ |archive-date=2014-08-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Energy efficiency ===
EV '[[tank-to-wheel]]s' efficiency is about a factor of three higher than internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref name="ec.europa.eu" /> Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. In 2022, EVs enabled a net reduction of about 80 Mt of GHG emissions, on a [[Well-to-wheel|well to-wheels]] basis, and the net GHG benefit of EVs will increase over time as the electricity sector is decarbonised.<ref name="auto" />

Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuels to renewable energy, such as wind power, tidal power, solar power, and nuclear power. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure{{snd}}in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the most carbon-intensive electricity in Europe, they emit less greenhouse gases than a conventional diesel vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2017_10_EV_LCA_briefing_final.pdf|title=Electric vehicle life cycle analysis and raw material availability|last=Lepetit|first=Yoann|date=October 2017|website=Transport & Environment|access-date=22 February 2018|archive-date=23 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050745/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2017_10_EV_LCA_briefing_final.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Total cost ===
{{As of|2021}} the purchase price of an EV is often more, but the [[total cost of ownership]] of an EV varies wildly depending on location<ref>{{Cite web|title=2020 European total cost of ownership for electric vehicles vs internal combustion engine vehicles {{!}} Nickel Institute|url=https://nickelinstitute.org/about-nickel/nickel-in-batteries/2020-european-total-cost-of-ownership-for-electric-vehicles-vs-internal-combustion-engine-vehicles/|access-date=2021-07-26|website=nickelinstitute.org|language=en-US|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726133330/https://nickelinstitute.org/about-nickel/nickel-in-batteries/2020-european-total-cost-of-ownership-for-electric-vehicles-vs-internal-combustion-engine-vehicles/|url-status=live}}</ref> and distance travelled per year:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Electric cars already cheapest option today for many consumers, new study finds {{!}} www.beuc.eu|url=https://www.beuc.eu/publications/electric-cars-already-cheapest-option-today-many-consumers-new-study-finds/html|access-date=2021-07-26|website=www.beuc.eu|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726133404/https://www.beuc.eu/publications/electric-cars-already-cheapest-option-today-many-consumers-new-study-finds/html|url-status=live}}</ref> in parts of the world where fossil fuels are subsidized, [[Life-cycle cost|lifecycle costs]] of diesel or gas-powered vehicle are sometimes less than a comparable EV.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trends and developments in electric vehicle markets – Global EV Outlook 2021 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021/trends-and-developments-in-electric-vehicle-markets|access-date=2021-07-26|website=IEA|language=en-GB|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726133330/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021/trends-and-developments-in-electric-vehicle-markets|url-status=live}}</ref>

European carmakers face significant pressure from more affordable Chinese models and price cuts by US-based Tesla Motor. From 2021 to 2022, the European market share of Chinese EV manufacturers doubled to almost 9%, prompting the [[Carlos Tavares|CEO]] of [[Stellantis]] to describe it as an "invasion".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Guillaume|first1=Gilles|last2=Piovaccari|first2=Giulio|title=Western car makers look to slash EV costs to fight Chinese 'invasion'|date=27 July 2023|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/western-car-makers-look-slash-ev-costs-fight-chinese-invasion-2023-07-27/}}</ref>

=== Range ===
{{main|All-electric range|range anxiety}}
Electric vehicles may have shorter range compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines,<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 August 2015|title=Explaining Electric & Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles {{!}} US EPA|url=https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/explaining-electric-plug-hybrid-electric-vehicles|url-status=live|access-date=8 June 2018|website=US EPA|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141131/https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/explaining-electric-plug-hybrid-electric-vehicles}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/cars/2017/09/the-average-price-of-electric-cars-rose-in-2016-but-its-not-a-backwards-trend/|title=Electric vehicle price is rising, but cost-per-mile is falling|work=Ars Technica|access-date=8 June 2018|archive-date=4 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604230257/https://arstechnica.com/cars/2017/09/the-average-price-of-electric-cars-rose-in-2016-but-its-not-a-backwards-trend/|url-status=live}}</ref> which is why the electrification of long-distance transport, such as long-distance shipping, remains challenging.

In 2022, the sales-weighted average range of small BEVs sold in the United States was nearly 350&nbsp;km, while in France, Germany and the United Kingdom it was just under 300&nbsp;km, compared to under 220&nbsp;km in China.<ref name="auto"/>

=== Heating of EVs ===
Well [[thermal insulation|insulated]] cabins can heat the vehicle using the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder climates as a driver delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A [[heat pump]] system, capable of cooling the cabin during summer and heating it during winter, is an efficient way of heating and cooling EVs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Beedham|first=Matthew|date=2021-02-03|title=What's a heat pump and why do EVs use them?|url=https://thenextweb.com/news/whats-a-heat-pump-and-why-do-evs-use-them|access-date=2021-07-28|website=TNW {{!}} Shift|language=en|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728143302/https://thenextweb.com/news/whats-a-heat-pump-and-why-do-evs-use-them|url-status=live}}</ref> For vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Most new electric cars come with heat pumps as standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Heat pumps in electric vehicles: What are they for? {{!}} Inquieto |url=https://www.soyinquieto.com/en/blog/heat-pumps-in-electric-vehicles-what-are-they-for/ |access-date=2023-11-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Electric public transit efficiency ==
[[File:Trådbuss Landskrona.JPG|thumb|One of the few trolleybuses in Europe, this [[trolleybus]] uses two overhead wires to provide electric current supply and return to the power source, 2005]]
Shifts from private to public transport (train, [[trolleybus]], [[personal rapid transit]] or tram) have the potential for large gains in efficiency in terms of an individual's distance traveled per kWh.

Research shows people prefer trams to buses,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/trams-energy-saving-private-cars-trolley-buses-diesel-buses.html |title=Trams, energy saving, private cars, trolley buses, diesel buses &#124; Claverton Group |publisher=Claverton-energy.com |date=28 May 2009 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919011117/http://www.claverton-energy.com/trams-energy-saving-private-cars-trolley-buses-diesel-buses.html |url-status=live }}</ref> because they are quieter and more comfortable and perceived as having higher status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/sustainable-light-rail-2.html |title=SUSTAINABLE LIGHT RAIL &#124; Claverton Group |publisher=Claverton-energy.com |date=21 November 2008 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-date=16 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916013816/http://www.claverton-energy.com/sustainable-light-rail-2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public transportation, with rubber-wheeled vehicles using two-thirds more energy than the equivalent tram, and run on electricity rather than fossil fuels.

In terms of [[net present value]], they are also the cheapest{{snd}}[[Blackpool tram]]s are still running after 100 years,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-09|title=Blackpool Trams – Then and Now • the seaside way to travel – with Live Blackpool|url=https://www.liveblackpool.info/about/trams/blackpool-trams/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=Blackpool|language=en-GB|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030224819/https://www.liveblackpool.info/about/trams/blackpool-trams/|url-status=live}}</ref> but combustion buses only last about 15 years.

== Government incentivization ==
{{Main|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}
{{See also|Electric car use by country}}
The IEA suggests that taxing inefficient internal combustion engine vehicles could encourage adoption of EVs, with taxes raised being used to fund subsidies for EVs.<ref name="auto"/> Government procurement is sometimes used to encourage national EV manufacturers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=171263|title=EESL to procure 10,000 Electric Vehicles from TATA Motors|website=pib.nic.in|access-date=7 February 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208123532/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=171263|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://qz.com/1095005/tata-motors-and-mahindra-are-in-the-drivers-seat-as-india-revs-up-its-grand-electric-vehicles-plan/|title=As India revs up its grand electric vehicles plan, Tata and Mahindra are in the driver's seat|last=Balachandran|first=Manu|work=Quartz|access-date=7 February 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208004645/https://qz.com/1095005/tata-motors-and-mahindra-are-in-the-drivers-seat-as-india-revs-up-its-grand-electric-vehicles-plan/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many countries will [[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles|ban sales of fossil fuel vehicles]] between 2025 and 2040.<ref>{{Cite web|title=5 things to know about the future of electric vehicles|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/electric-vehicle-sales-sustainability-iea/|access-date=2021-06-07|website=World Economic Forum|date=12 May 2021 |language=en|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616070220/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/electric-vehicle-sales-sustainability-iea/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.

Companies selling EVs have partnered with local [[Electric utility|electric utilities]] to provide large incentives on some electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Accelerating the Transition to Electric School Buses {{!}} U.S. PIRG Education Fund|url=https://uspirgedfund.org/reports/usf/accelerating-transition-electric-school-buses|access-date=2021-07-29|website=uspirgedfund.org|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729182202/https://uspirgedfund.org/reports/usf/accelerating-transition-electric-school-buses|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Future ==
[[File:Salon Privé London 2012 (7956529248).jpg|thumb|[[Rimac Concept One]], electric supercar, since 2013. 0 to 100&nbsp;km/h in 2.8 seconds, with a total output of {{convert|1073|hp|kW|0|abbr=on|order=flip}}.]]

=== Public perception ===
A European survey based on climate found that as of 2022, 39% of European citizens tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles, followed by electric cars which were preferred by 28% of Europeans.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |title=2021–2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 2 of 3: Shopping for a new car? Most Europeans say they will opt for hybrid or electric |url=https://www.eib.org/en/surveys/climate-survey/4th-climate-survey/hybrid-electric-petrol-cars-flying-holidays-climate.htm |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=EIB.org |language=en}}</ref> 44% Chinese car buyers are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.<ref name=":03" />

In a 2023 survey concentrated specifically on electric car ownership in the US, 50% of respondents planning to purchase a future car considered themselves unlikely to seriously consider buying an EV. The survey also found that support for banning the production of non-electric vehicles in the US by 2035 has declined from 47% to 40%.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Spencer |first1=Alison |last2=Ross |first2=Stephanie |last3=Tyson |first3=Alec |title=How Americans view electric vehicles |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/07/13/how-americans-view-electric-vehicles/ |access-date=2023-12-09 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> 
[[File:For_Americans_and_Europeans,_price_is_the_main_barrier_to_buying_an_electric_vehicle;_Chinese_people_are_more_divided_and_have_concerns_about_driving_range.png|thumb|Survey results showing that for American and European respondents, price is the main barrier to buying an electric vehicle.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-europe |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Government action, personal choices and the green transition |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5535-2 |language=EN}}</ref>]]

=== Environmental considerations ===
{{See also|Environmental footprint of electric cars}}
By reducing types of air pollution, such as [[nitrogen dioxide]], EVs could prevent hundreds of thousands of early deaths every year,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Zeroing in on Healthy Air |url=https://www.lung.org/getmedia/13248145-06f0-4e35-b79b-6dfacfd29a71/zeroing-in-on-healthy-air-report-2022 |website=[[American Lung Association]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Ying |last2=Partha |first2=Debatosh |last3=Prime |first3=Noah |last4=Smith |first4=Steven J |last5=Mariscal |first5=Noribeth |last6=Salah |first6=Halima |last7=Huang |first7=Yaoxian |date=2022-10-01 |title=Long-term trends of impacts of global gasoline and diesel emissions on ambient PM 2.5 and O 3 pollution and the related health burden for 2000–2015 |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=104042 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ac9422 |bibcode=2022ERL....17j4042X |s2cid=252471791 |issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free }}</ref> especially from trucks and traffic in cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carey |first=John |date=2023-01-17 |title=The other benefit of electric vehicles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=3 |pages=e2220923120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2220923120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9934249 |pmid=36630449|bibcode=2023PNAS..12020923C }}</ref>

The full environmental impact of electric vehicles includes the life cycle impacts of carbon and sulfur emissions, as well as toxic metals entering the environment.

Rare-earth metals ([[neodymium]], [[dysprosium]]) and other mined metals (copper, nickel, iron) are used by EV motors, while lithium, cobalt, manganese are used by the batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Månberger |first1=André |last2=Stenqvist |first2=Björn |date=August 2018 |title=Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development |journal=Energy Policy |volume=119 |pages=226–241 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056 |s2cid=52227957 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=2021-05-24 |title=Move to net zero 'inevitably means more mining' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57234610 |url-status=live |access-date=2021-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604073918/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57234610 |archive-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> In 2023 the US State Department said that the supply of lithium would need to increase 42-fold by 2050 globally to support a transition to clean energy.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ewing |first1=Jack |last2=Krauss |first2=Clifford |date=2023-03-20 |title=Falling Lithium Prices Are Making Electric Cars More Affordable |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/20/business/lithium-prices-falling-electric-vehicles.html |access-date=2023-04-12 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Most of the lithium ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal burning power plants. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buberger |first1=Johannes |last2=Kersten |first2=Anton |last3=Kuder |first3=Manuel |last4=Eckerle |first4=Richard |last5=Weyh |first5=Thomas |last6=Thiringer |first6=Torbjörn |date=2022-05-01 |title=Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=159 |pages=112158 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158 |s2cid=246758071 |issn=1364-0321|doi-access=free }}</ref> 
	
An alternative method of sourcing essential battery materials being deliberated by the [[International Seabed Authority]] is [[deep sea mining]], however carmakers are not using this as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Halper |first=Evan |date=5 April 2023 |title=Unleash the deep-sea robots? A quandary as EV makers hunt for metals. |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/04/05/deep-sea-mining-electric-vehicles/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

=== Improved batteries ===
Advances in lithium-ion batteries, driven at first by the personal-use electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable EVs to travel nearly as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours (see [[Rechargeable battery#Recharging time|recharging time]]), and now last longer than the typical vehicle (see [[Rechargeable battery#Lifespan and cycle stability|lifespan]]). The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium-ion batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.<ref>Korosec, Kirsten. [https://techcrunch.com/2020/07/30/panasonic-boosts-energy-density-trims-cobalt-in-new-2170-battery-cell-for-tesla "Panasonic boosts energy density, trims cobalt in new 2170 battery cell for Tesla"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829055225/https://techcrunch.com/2020/07/30/panasonic-boosts-energy-density-trims-cobalt-in-new-2170-battery-cell-for-tesla/ |date=29 August 2020 }}, July 30, 2020</ref><ref>[https://www.autoblog.com/2020/08/05/daimler-catl-long-range-electric-car-batteries "Daimler deepens CATL alliance to build long-range, fast-charging EV batteries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823164111/https://www.autoblog.com/2020/08/05/daimler-catl-long-range-electric-car-batteries/ |date=23 August 2020 }}, Reuters, August 5, 2020; and [https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/porsche-the-perfect-cell "Porsche: The perfect cell"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125221054/https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/porsche-the-perfect-cell/ |date=25 November 2020 }}, ''Automotive World'', August 28, 2020</ref> Research is also underway to improve battery reuse and recycling, which would further reduce the environmental impact of batteries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=Zachary J. |last2=Bird |first2=Robert |last3=Yu |first3=Xiang |last4=Ma |first4=Jia |date=2022-10-14 |title=Correction to "Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling─Overview of Techniques and Trends" |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01888 |journal=ACS Energy Letters |language=en |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=3268–3269 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01888 |issn=2380-8195}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martinez-Laserna |first1=E. |last2=Gandiaga |first2=I. |last3=Sarasketa-Zabala |first3=E. |last4=Badeda |first4=J. |last5=Stroe |first5=D. -I. |last6=Swierczynski |first6=M. |last7=Goikoetxea |first7=A. |date=2018-10-01 |title=Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032118302491 |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=93 |pages=701–718 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.035 |s2cid=115675123 |issn=1364-0321}}</ref>
[[File:If_they_had_to_change_cars,_Europeans_and_Americans_would_prefer_a_hybrid_vehicle,_whereas_many_Chinese_people_would_opt_for_an_electric_one.png|thumb|The same survey showing that if the respondents had to change cars, Chinese respondents are more likely to opt for an electric one.<ref name="auto2"/>]]
Many companies and researchers are also working on newer battery technologies, including solid state batteries<ref>Patel, Prachi. [https://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/batteries-storage/ion-storage-systems-ceramic-electrolyte-news-solid-state-batteries "Ion Storage Systems Says Its Ceramic Electrolyte Could Be a Gamechanger for Solid-State Batteries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929092700/https://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/batteries-storage/ion-storage-systems-ceramic-electrolyte-news-solid-state-batteries |date=29 September 2020 }}, IEEE.org, February 21, 2020</ref> and alternate technologies.<ref>Lambert, Fred. [https://electrek.co/2020/08/12/tesla-researchers-show-path-next-gen-battery-cell-breakthrough-energy-density "Tesla researchers show path to next-gen battery cell with breakthrough energy density"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824065614/https://electrek.co/2020/08/12/tesla-researchers-show-path-next-gen-battery-cell-breakthrough-energy-density/ |date=24 August 2020 }}, Electrek, August 12, 2020</ref>

=== Battery management and intermediate storage ===
Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, using [[supercapacitor]]s to buffer large but short power demands and [[regenerative braking]] energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horn |first1=Michael |last2=MacLeod |first2=Jennifer |last3=Liu |first3=Meinan |last4=Webb |first4=Jeremy |last5=Motta |first5=Nunzio |title=Supercapacitors: A new source of power for electric cars? |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |date=March 2019 |volume=61 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.1016/j.eap.2018.08.003 |s2cid=187458469 |url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/121172/1/__qut.edu.au_Documents_StudentHome_Group77%24_n8844577_Documents_PhD_Misc_EVdocs_Supercapacitors%20A%20new%20power%20source%20for%20electric%20cars.pdf }}</ref> The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring, it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

=== Electric trucks ===
{{Excerpt|Electric truck}}

=== Hydrogen trains ===
Particularly in Europe, [[Hydrail|fuel-cell electric trains]] are gaining in popularity to replace [[Diesel electric locomotive|diesel-electric]] units. In Germany, several [[States of Germany|Länder]] have ordered [[Alstom Coradia LINT|Alstom Coradia iLINT]] trainsets, in service since 2018,<ref name="France-Presse">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train|title=Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=17 September 2018|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-date=17 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train|url-status=live}}</ref> with France also planning to order trainsets.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/occitanie-premiere-region-commander-trains-hydrogene-alstom-1583327.html|title=L'Occitanie, première région à commander des trains à hydrogène à Alstom|work=France 3 Occitanie|access-date=29 November 2018|language=fr|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129125502/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/occitanie-premiere-region-commander-trains-hydrogene-alstom-1583327.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Canada<ref name="France-Presse" /> and Mexico<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/empresas/la-constructora-alstom-quiere-ir-por-el-tramo-ecologico-del-tren-maya|title=La constructora Alstom quiere ir por el 'tramo ecológico' del Tren Maya|work=El Financiero|access-date=29 November 2018|language=es|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129013328/http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/empresas/la-constructora-alstom-quiere-ir-por-el-tramo-ecologico-del-tren-maya|url-status=live}}</ref> are equally interested. In France, the [[SNCF]] plans to replace all its remaining diesel-electric trains with hydrogen trains by 2035.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/sncf-pepy-envisage-la-fin-des-trains-diesel-et-l-arrive-de-l-hydrogene-en-2035-797750.html|title=SNCF : Pépy envisage la fin des trains diesel et l'arrivée de l'hydrogène en 2035|work=La Tribune|access-date=29 November 2018|language=fr-FR|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129225137/https://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/sncf-pepy-envisage-la-fin-des-trains-diesel-et-l-arrive-de-l-hydrogene-en-2035-797750.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, Alstom announced in 2018 their plan to retrofit British Rail Class 321 trainsets with fuel cells.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2018/05/14/french-train-giant-alstom-set-make-uks-first-hydrogen-fleet/|title=SNCF : Pépy envisage la fin des trains diesel et l'arrivée de l'hydrogène en 2035|work=La Tribune|access-date=29 November 2018|language=fr-FR|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129184047/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2018/05/14/french-train-giant-alstom-set-make-uks-first-hydrogen-fleet/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Higher voltage outlets in garages of newly built homes===
{{see also|NEMA connectors}}
[[File:NEMA 14-50.svg|thumb|[[NEMA 14-50]] 240v 50 amps]]
In [[New Mexico]] the government is looking to pass legislation mandating [[electrical receptacle]]s that are higher voltage to be installed in garages of newly built homes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2023/01/25/new-mexico-law-seeks-solar-on-every-roof-and-an-ev-charger-in-every-garage/|title=New Mexico law seeks solar on every roof, and an EV charger in every garage|date=25 January 2023|website=pv magazine USA}}</ref>  The [[NEMA 14-50]] outlets provide [[Mains electricity|240 volt]]s and 50 [[Electric current|Amps]] for a total of 12.5 [[Watt#Kilowatt|Kilowatt]]s for [[Charging station#Alternating current (AC)|level 2 charging]] of electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ev-lectron.com/collections/nema-14-50|title=Buy Nema 14–50 EV Charger – Lectron|website=Lectron EV}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://getneocharge.com/a/blog/types-of-electrical-outlets-for-electric-car-chargers#:~:text=The%20best%20240V%20(Level%202,miles%20of%20range%20per%20hour. | title=NeoCharge }}</ref> Level 2 charging can add up to 30 miles of range per hour of charging compared to up to 4 miles of range per hour for [[Charging station#SAE|level 1 charging]] from 120 [[volt]] outlets.

=== Bidirectional charging ===
General Motors (GM) is adding a capability called V2H, or bidirectional charging, to allow its new electric vehicles to send power from their batteries to the owner's home.  GM will start with 2024 models, including the Silverado and Blazer EVs, and promises to continue the feature through to model year 2026.  This could be helpful to the owner during unexpected power grid outages because an electric vehicle is a giant battery on wheels.<ref name=bidirectional>[https://arstechnica.com/cars/2023/08/general-motors-will-add-bidirectional-charging-to-its-ultium-based-evs/ General Motors will add bidirectional charging to its Ultium-based EVs] by Jonathan M. Gitlin, on Ars Technica, 8/8/2023.</ref>

== Infrastructure management ==
With the increase in number of electric vehicles, it is necessary to create an appropriate number of charging stations to supply the increasing demand,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.vehcom.2019.100188|title=A traffic-aware electric vehicle charging management system for smart cities|year=2019|last1=Barbecho Bautista|first1=Pablo|last2=Lemus Cárdenas|first2=Leticia|last3=Urquiza Aguiar|first3=Luis|last4=Aguilar Igartua|first4=Mónica|journal=Vehicular Communications|volume=20|page=100188|hdl=2117/172770|s2cid=204080912|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and a proper management system that coordinates the charging turn of each vehicle to avoid having some charging stations overloaded with vehicles and others empty.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.adhoc.2019.101929|title=Interoperability network model for traffic forecast and full electric vehicles power supply management within the smart city|year=2019|last1=Fernandez Pallarés|first1=Victor|last2=Cebollada|first2=Juan Carlos Guerri|last3=Martínez|first3=Alicia Roca|journal=Ad Hoc Networks|volume=93|page=101929|s2cid=196184613}}</ref>

=== Stabilization of the grid ===
[[File:V2GEnabledEVFastCharger.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Vehicle-to-grid]] (V2G) charger where energy can flow back into the grid if needed]]
Since EVs can be plugged into the [[electric grid]] when not in use, battery-powered vehicles could reduce the need for [[dispatchable generation]] by feeding electricity into the grid from their batteries during periods of high demand and low supply (such as just after sunset) while doing most of their charging at night or midday, when there is unused generating capacity.<ref name="Liasi">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237 |chapter=Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response |title=2017 Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE) |year=2017 |last1=Liasi |first1=Sahand Ghaseminejad |last2=Golkar |first2=Masoud Aliakbar |pages=1272–1277 |isbn=978-1-5090-5963-8 |s2cid=22071272 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets |url=https://www.schroders.com/en-us/us/institutional/insights/its-not-just-cars-driving-the-ev-revolution-in-emerging-markets |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.schroders.com |language=en-us |quote=Beyond grid stabilisation benefits, smart charging of EVs, using differentiated electricity tariffs in off-peak hours, may also mitigate the pressure on electricity demand. That’s because vehicles can be charged during the day, when demand is lower and renewables generation is available.}}</ref> This [[vehicle-to-grid]] (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind reducing the life of their batteries, by being drained by the power company during peak demand. Electric vehicle parking lots can provide [[demand response]].<ref name="Shafie-khah Heydarian-Forushani 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Shafie-khah |first1=Miadreza |last2=Heydarian-Forushani |first2=Ehsan |last3=Osorio |first3=Gerardo J. |last4=Gil |first4=Fabio A. S. |last5=Aghaei |first5=Jamshid |last6=Barani |first6=Mostafa |last7=Catalao |first7=Joao P. S. |title=Optimal Behavior of Electric Vehicle Parking Lots as Demand Response Aggregation Agents |journal=IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid |date=November 2016 |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=2654–2665 |doi=10.1109/TSG.2015.2496796 |s2cid=715959 |issn=1949-3053 }}</ref>

Current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as wind and [[Solar PV|solar]]. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.<ref>{{Cite web |title=It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets |url=https://www.schroders.com/en-us/us/institutional/insights/its-not-just-cars-driving-the-ev-revolution-in-emerging-markets |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.schroders.com |language=en-us |quote=Intermittency from solar or wind technologies can put creating voltage and frequency variations. Batteries can charge and discharge to stabilise the grid in such instances. The batteries of electric vehicles, e-buses or electric two-wheelers, while connected to the grid, could therefore play a role in protecting a grid’s stability.}}</ref>

Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/energy-experts-library/downloads/enginesgasturbines |title=Engines and Gas Turbines &#124; Claverton Group |publisher=Claverton-energy.com |date=18 November 2008 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-date=6 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090906092124/http://www.claverton-energy.com/energy-experts-library/downloads/enginesgasturbines |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ National Grid's use of Emergency. Diesel Standby Generator's in dealing with grid intermittency and variability. Potential Contribution in assisting renewables] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217164416/http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ |date=17 February 2010 }}, David Andrews, Senior Technical Consultant, Biwater Energy, A talk originally given by as the Energy Manager at Wessex Water at an Open University Conference on Intermittency, 24 January 2006</ref>

=== Repair Shops ===
The infrastructure for vehicle repairs after accidents is a concern for insurers and mechanics due to safety requirements.<ref>Nick Carey; Josie Kao and Louise Heavens. (5 July 2023). "EV batteries remain major challenge for insurers – UK's Thatcham". [https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/ev-batteries-remain-major-challenge-insurers-uks-thatcham-2023-07-04/ Reuters website] Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref> Batteries and other components must be carefully evaluated rather than being totally written off by [[Claims adjuster|insurers]].<ref>Nick Carey. (27 June 2023). "UK firm Metis touts battery sensor that could ease EV scrappage problem". [https://www.reuters.com/technology/uk-firm-metis-touts-battery-sensor-that-could-ease-ev-scrappage-problem-2023-06-27/ Reuters website] Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy|Technology|Cars|Environment}}
* [[Electric rickshaw]] – E-tricycle
* [[Neighborhood Electric Vehicle]] – NEV
* [[Polluter pays principle]]
* [[Alternative fuel vehicle]]
* [[Vehicle classification by propulsion system]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* [[International Energy Agency]], [https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022 Global EV Outlook 2022].
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category-inline|Electrically-powered vehicles|Electrically powered vehicles}}

{{Motor fuel}}
{{Automobile configuration}}
{{Alternative propulsion}}
{{Powertrain}}
{{Electric vehicles}}
{{Environmental technology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Electric vehicles| ]]
[[Category:Sustainable transport]]
[[Category:19th-century introductions]]