View source for Electrowetting

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'''Electrowetting''' is the modification of the [[wetting]] properties of a surface (which is typically [[hydrophobic]]) with an applied [[electric field]].

==History==
The electrowetting of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and other [[liquid]]s on variably charged surfaces was probably first explained by [[Gabriel Lippmann]] in 1875<ref>Gabriel Lippmann, "Relation entre les phénomènes électriques et capillaires." Ann. Chim. Phys, 5:494, 1875</ref> and was certainly observed much earlier. [[Alexander Frumkin|A. N. Frumkin]] used surface charge to change the shape of [[water]] drops in 1936.<ref>A. Frumkin, Об явлениях смачивания и прилипания пузырьков, I (On the phenomena of wetting and adhesion of the bubbles, I). Zhurnal Fizicheskoi Khimii (J Phys Chem USSR), 12: 337-345 (1938).</ref> The term electrowetting was first introduced in 1981 by G. Beni and S. Hackwood to describe an effect proposed for designing a new type of display device for which they received a patent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beni |first1=G. |author-link=Gerardo Beni |last2=Hackwood |first2=S. |author-link2=Susan Hackwood |title=Electro‐wetting displays |journal=Applied Physics Letters |publisher=AIP Publishing |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=1981-02-15 |issn=0003-6951 |doi=10.1063/1.92322 |bibcode=1981ApPhL..38..207B |pages=207–209}}</ref> The use of a "fluid transistor" in microfluidic circuits for manipulating chemical and biological fluids was first investigated by J. Brown in 1980 and later funded in 1984–1988 under NSF Grants 8760730 & 8822197,<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/piSearch.do;jsessionid=D05E82394F781CBA17DB0C5AC8E3C0B8?SearchType=piSearch&page=1&QueryText=&PIFirstName=james&PILastName=brown&PIInstitution=cytonix&PIState=MD&PIZip=&PICountry=US&RestrictExpired=on&Search=Search#results]{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> employing insulating dielectric and hydrophobic layer(s) (EWOD), immiscible fluids, DC or RF power; and mass arrays of miniature interleaved (saw tooth) electrodes with large or matching [[indium tin oxide]] (ITO) electrodes to digitally relocate nano droplets in linear, circular, and directed paths, pump or mix fluids, fill reservoirs, and control fluid flow electronically or optically. Later, in collaboration with J. Silver at the NIH, EWOD-based electrowetting was disclosed for single and immiscible fluids to move, separate, hold, and seal arrays of digital PCR sub-samples.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=6143496 |inventor=Brown, et al. |status=patent |title=Method of sampling, amplifying and quantifying segment of nucleic acid, polymerase chain reaction assembly having nanoliter-sized sample chambers, and method of filling assembly |gdate=November 7, 2000}}</ref>

Electrowetting using an insulating layer on top of a bare electrode was later studied by Bruno Berge in 1993.<ref>B. Berge, "Électrocapillarité et mouillage de films isolants par l'eau", C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, t. 317, Série II, p. 157-163, 1993.</ref> Electrowetting on this dielectric-coated surface is called electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD)<ref name="ReferenceA">J. Lee, "Microactuation by Continuous Electrowetting and Electrowetting: Theory, Fabrication, and Demonstration," PhD Thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 2000</ref> to distinguish it from the conventional electrowetting on the bare electrode. Electrowetting can be demonstrated by replacing the metal electrode in the EWOD system by a [[semiconductor]].<ref>S. Arscott “Electrowetting and semiconductors” RSC Advances 4, 29223 (2014). {{doi|10.1039/C4RA04187A}}.</ref><ref>C. Palma and R. Deegan “Electrowetting on semiconductors” Appl. Phys. Lett. 106, 014106 (2015). {{doi|10.1063/1.4905348}}.</ref> Electrowetting is also observed when a [[p–n junction|reverse bias]] is applied to a conducting droplet (e.g. mercury) which has been placed directly onto a semiconductor surface (e.g. silicon) to form a [[Schottky barrier|Schottky contact]] in a [[Schottky diode]] electrical circuit configuration – this effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’.<ref>S. Arscott and M. Gaudet "Electrowetting at a liquid metal–semiconductor junction" Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 074104 (2013). {{doi|10.1063/1.4818715}}.</ref>

Microfluidic manipulation of liquids by electrowetting was demonstrated first with mercury droplets in water<ref>J. Lee and C.-J. Kim, "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/659815/ Liquid Micromotor Driven by Continuous Electrowetting]", Proc. IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems Workshop, Heidelberg, Germany, Jan. 1998, pp. 538–543</ref> and later with water in air<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and water in oil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pollack |first1=Michael G. |last2=Fair |first2=Richard B. |last3=Shenderov |first3=Alexander D. |title=Electrowetting-based actuation of liquid droplets for microfluidic applications |journal=Applied Physics Letters |publisher=AIP Publishing |volume=77 |issue=11 |date=2000-09-11 |issn=0003-6951 |doi=10.1063/1.1308534 |bibcode=2000ApPhL..77.1725P |pages=1725–1726}}</ref> Manipulation of droplets on a two-dimensional path was demonstrated later.<ref>S.-K. Fan, P.-P. de Guzman, and C.-J. Kim, "EWOD Driving of Droplet on NxM Grid Using Single-Layer Electrode Patterns, Tech. Dig., Solid-State Sensor, Actuator, and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, June 2002, pp. 134–137</ref><ref>J. Gong and C.-J. Kim, "[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/1454032/ Two-Dimensional Digital Microfluidic System by Multi-Layer Printed Circuit Board]", Proc. IEEE Conf. MEMS, Orlando, FL, Jan. 2005, pp. 726–729</ref>
If the liquid is discretized and programmably manipulated, the approach is called "Digital Microfluidic Circuits"<ref>C.-J. Kim, "Integrated Digital Microfluidic Circuits Operated by Electrowetting-on-Dielectrics (EWOD) Principle", granted in 2000 by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), award number N66001-0130-3664</ref><ref>C.-J. Kim, "Micropumping by Electrowetting", Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 2001, New York, NY, IMECE2001/HTD-24200.</ref> or "[[Digital microfluidics|Digital Microfluidics]]".<ref>M. G. Pollack, Electrowetting-Based Microactuation Of Droplets For Digital Microfluidics, PhD Thesis, Duke University, 2001.</ref> Discretization by electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) was first demonstrated by Cho, Moon, and Kim.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=S. K. |last1=Cho |first2=H. |last2=Moon |first3=C.-J. |last3=Kim |title=Creating, transporting, cutting, and merging liquid droplets by electrowetting-based actuation for digital microfluidic circuits |journal=Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems |publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) |volume=12 |issue=1 |year=2003 |issn=1057-7157 |doi=10.1109/jmems.2002.807467 |pages=70–80}}</ref>

==Electrowetting theory==
[[File:Electrowetting (svg).svg|thumb|300px|Liquid, Isolator, Substrate]]
The electrowetting effect has been defined as "the change in solid-[[electrolyte]] [[contact angle]] due to an applied [[potential difference]] between the solid and the electrolyte". The phenomenon of electrowetting can be understood in terms of the forces that result from the applied electric field.<ref name="Chang">{{cite book |author-last1=Chang |author-first1=H. C. |author-last2=Yeo |author-first2=L. |title=Electrokinetically Driven Microfluidics and Nanofluidics |date=2009 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref><ref name="Kirby">{{cite book |author-last=Kirby |author-first=B. J. |title=Micro- and Nanoscale Fluid Mechanics: Transport in Microfluidic Devices. |url=http://www.kirbyresearch.com/textbook |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11903-0 |access-date=2011-01-08 |archive-date=2019-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428234717/http://www.kirbyresearch.com/textbook/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The fringing field at the corners of the electrolyte droplet tends to pull the droplet down onto the electrode, lowering the macroscopic contact angle and increasing the droplet contact area. Alternatively, electrowetting can be viewed from a thermodynamic perspective. Since the surface tension of an interface is defined as the [[Helmholtz free energy]] required to create a certain area of that surface, it contains both chemical and electrical components, and charge becomes a significant term in that equation. The chemical component is just the natural surface tension of the solid/electrolyte interface with no electric field. The electrical component is the energy stored in the [[capacitor]] formed between the conductor and the electrolyte.

The simplest derivation of electrowetting behavior is given by considering its thermodynamic model. While it is possible to obtain a detailed numerical model of electrowetting by considering the precise shape of the electrical fringing field and how it affects the local droplet curvature, such solutions are mathematically and computationally complex. The thermodynamic derivation proceeds as follows. Defining the relevant surface tensions as:
:<math> \gamma_{ws} \,</math> – The total, electrical and chemical, surface tension between the electrolyte and the conductor
:<math> \gamma_{ws}^0 \,</math> – The surface tension between the electrolyte and the conductor at zero electric field
:<math> \gamma_s \,</math> – The surface tension between the conductor and the external ambient
:<math> \gamma_w \,</math> – The surface tension between the electrolyte and the external ambient
:<math> \theta</math> – The macroscopic contact angle between the electrolyte and the dielectric
:<math>C </math> – The capacitance per area of the interface, є<sub>r</sub>є<sub>0</sub>/t, for a uniform dielectric of thickness t and permittivity є<sub>r</sub>
:<math>V </math> – The effective applied voltage, integral of the electric field from the electrolyte to the conductor

Relating the total surface tension to its chemical and electrical components gives:
:<math> \gamma _{ws} = \gamma _{ws}^0 - \frac{CV^2}{2} \,</math>

The [[contact angle]] is given by the Young-Dupre equation, with the only complication being that the total surface energy <math> \gamma_{ws}</math> is used:
:<math> \gamma_{ws} = \gamma_s - \gamma_w \cos(\theta) \,</math>

Combining the two equations gives the dependence of θ on the effective applied voltage as:
:<math> \cos \theta = \left(\frac{\gamma_s - \gamma _{ws}^0 +\frac{CV^2}{2}}{\gamma_w}\right) \,</math>

An additional complication is that liquids also exhibit a saturation phenomenon: after certain voltage, the saturation voltage, the further increase of voltage will not change the contact angle, and with extreme voltages the interface will only show instabilities.

However, surface charge is but one component of surface energy, and other components are certainly perturbed by induced charge. So, a complete explanation of electrowetting is unquantified, but it should not be surprising that these limits exist.

It was recently shown by Klarman et al.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klarman |first1=Dan |last2=Andelman |first2=David |last3=Urbakh |first3=Michael |title=A Model of Electrowetting, Reversed Electrowetting, and Contact Angle Saturation |journal=Langmuir |volume=27 |issue=10 |date=2011-05-17 |issn=0743-7463 |doi=10.1021/la2004326 |pmid=21510663 |pages=6031–6041 |arxiv=1102.0791 |bibcode=2011arXiv1102.0791K |s2cid=18448044}}</ref> that contact angle saturation can be explained as a universal effect- regardless of materials used – if electrowetting is observed as a global phenomenon affected by the detailed geometry of the system. Within this framework it is predicted that reversed electrowetting is also possible (contact angle grows with the voltage).

It has also been experimentally shown by Chevaloitt<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chevalliot |first1=Stéphanie |last2=Kuiper |first2=Stein |last3=Heikenfeld |first3=Jason |title=Experimental Validation of the Invariance of Electrowetting Contact Angle Saturation |journal=Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology |volume=26 |issue=12–17 |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |issn=0169-4243 |doi=10.1163/156856111x599580 |pages=1–22 |s2cid=1760297 |url=http://www.ece.uc.edu/devices/Downloads/Documents/Publications/Experimental%20Validation%20of%20the%20Invariance%20of%20Electrowetting_New.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120714020742/http://www.ece.uc.edu/devices/Downloads/Documents/Publications/Experimental%20Validation%20of%20the%20Invariance%20of%20Electrowetting_New.pdf |archive-date=2012-07-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref> that contact angle saturation is invariant to all materials parameters, thus revealing that when good materials are utilized, most saturation theories are invalid. This same paper further suggests that electrohydrodynamic instability may be the source of saturation, a theory that is unproven but being suggested by several other groups as well.

==Reverse electrowetting==
[[Reverse electrowetting]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krupenkin |first1=Tom |last2=Taylor |first2=J. Ashley |title=Reverse electrowetting as a new approach to high-power energy harvesting |journal=Nature Communications |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=2 |issue=1 |date=2011-08-23 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/ncomms1454 |pmid=21863015 |pmc=3265368 |bibcode=2011NatCo...2..448K |page=448 |doi-access=free}}</ref> can be used to harvest energy via a mechanical-to-electrical engineering scheme.

==Electrowetting on liquid-infused film (EWOLF)==
Another electrowetting configuration is [[electrowetting on liquid-infused film]]. The liquid-infused film is achieved by locking a liquid lubricant in a porous membrane through the delicate control of wetting properties of the liquid and solid phases. Taking advantage of the negligible contact line pinning at the liquid-liquid interface, the droplet response in EWOLF can be electrically addressed with enhanced degree of switchability and reversibility compared to the conventional EWOD. Moreover, the infiltration of liquid lubricant phase in the porous membrane also efficiently enhances the viscous energy dissipation, suppressing the droplet oscillation and leading to fast response without sacrificing the desired electrowetting reversibility. Meanwhile, the damping effect associated with the EWOLF can be tailored by manipulating the viscosity and thickness of liquid lubricant.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hao |first1=Chonglei |last2=Liu |first2=Yahua |last3=Chen |first3=Xuemei |last4=He |first4=Yuncheng |last5=Li |first5=Qiusheng |last6=Li |first6=K. Y. |last7=Wang |first7=Zuankai |title=Electrowetting on liquid-infused film (EWOLF): Complete reversibility and controlled droplet oscillation suppression for fast optical imaging |journal=Scientific Reports |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=2014-10-30 |issn=2045-2322 |doi=10.1038/srep06846 |pmid=25355005 |arxiv=1409.6989 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4E6846H |page=6846 |pmc=4213809 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Opto- and photoelectrowetting==
[[Optoelectrowetting]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiou |first1=Pei Yu |last2=Moon |first2=Hyejin |last3=Toshiyoshi |first3=Hiroshi |last4=Kim |first4=Chang-Jin |last5=Wu |first5=Ming C. |title=Light actuation of liquid by optoelectrowetting |journal=Sensors and Actuators A: Physical |publisher=Elsevier BV |volume=104 |issue=3 |year=2003 |issn=0924-4247 |doi=10.1016/s0924-4247(03)00024-4 |pages=222–228}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Sung-Yong |last2=Teitell |first2=Michael A. |last3=Chiou |first3=Eric P. Y. |title=Single-sided continuous optoelectrowetting (SCOEW) for droplet manipulation with light patterns |journal=Lab on a Chip |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) |volume=10 |issue=13 |pages=1655–61 |year=2010 |issn=1473-0197 |doi=10.1039/c001324b |pmid=20448870}}</ref> and [[photoelectrowetting]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Arscott |first=Steve |title=Moving liquids with light: Photoelectrowetting on semiconductors |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=2011 |issn=2045-2322 |doi=10.1038/srep00184 |pmid=22355699 |arxiv=1108.4935 |bibcode=2011NatSR...1E.184A |page=184 |pmc=3240946 |doi-access=free}}</ref> are both optically-induced electrowetting effects. Optoelectrowetting involves the use of a [[photoconductivity|photoconductor]] whereas photoelectrowetting use a [[photodiode|photocapacitance]] and can be observed if the conductor in the liquid/insulator/conductor stack used for electrowetting is replaced by a [[semiconductor]]. By optically modulating the number of carriers in the [[Space charge|space-charge]] region of the semiconductor, the contact angle of a liquid droplet can be altered in a continuous way. This effect can be explained by a modification of the Young-Lippmann equation.

==Materials==
For reasons that are still under investigation, only a limited set of surfaces exhibit the theoretically predicted electrowetting behavior. Because of this, alternative materials that can be used to coat and functionalize the surface are used to create the expected wetting behavior. For example, amorphous [[fluoropolymer]]s are widely used electrowetting coating materials, and it has been found that the behavior of these fluoropolymers can be enhanced by the appropriate surface patterning. These fluoropolymers coat the necessary conductive electrode, typically made of aluminum foil or indium tin oxide (ITO), to create the desired electrowetting properties.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Chun-Guang |last2=Xu |first2=Zhang-Run |last3=Wang |first3=Jian-Hua |title=Manipulation of droplets in microfluidic systems |journal=TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry |date=February 2010 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=141–157 |doi=10.1016/j.trac.2009.11.002}}</ref> Three types of such polymers are commercially available: FluoroPel hydrophobic and superhydrophobic V-series polymers are sold by Cytonix, CYTOP is sold by [[Asahi Glass Co.]], and Teflon AF is sold by [[DuPont]]. Other surface materials such as SiO2 and gold on glass have been used.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brabcova |first1=Zuzana |last2=McHale |first2=Glen |last3=Wells |first3=Gary G. |last4=Brown |first4=Carl V. |last5=Newton |first5=Michael I. |title=Electric field induced reversible spreading of droplets into films on lubricant impregnated surfaces |journal=Applied Physics Letters |date=20 March 2017 |volume=110 |issue=12 |pages=121603 |doi=10.1063/1.4978859 |bibcode=2017ApPhL.110l1603B |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Yi |last2=Sur |first2=Aritra |last3=Pascente |first3=Carmen |last4=Ravi Annapragada |first4=S. |last5=Ruchhoeft |first5=Paul |last6=Liu |first6=Dong |title=Dynamics of droplet motion induced by Electrowetting |journal=International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer |date=March 2017 |volume=106 |pages=920–931 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.10.040 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These materials allow the surfaces themselves to act as the ground electrodes for the electric current.<ref name=":0"/>

==Applications==
Electrowetting is now used in a wide range of applications,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.varioptic.com/en/topmenu/liquid-lens-technology.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305000132/http://www.varioptic.com/en/topmenu/liquid-lens-technology.html | archive-date=2011-03-05 | title=Varioptic - the Liquid Lens Company &#124; Liquid Lens Technology }}</ref> from modular to adjustable lenses, electronic displays ([[e-paper]]), electronic outdoor displays, and switches for optical fibers. Electrowetting has recently been evoked for manipulating [[soft matter]] particularly, suppressing [[coffee ring effect]].<ref name="ERAL1">[http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2011/sm/c1sm05183k H.Burak Eral, D.Mampallil, M. H. G. Duits, F. Mugele "Suppressing the coffee stain effect: how to control colloidal self-assembly in evaporating drops using electrowetting", Soft Matter, 2011, 7, 4954–4958], {{doi|10.1039/C1SM05183K}}</ref> Furthermore, filters with electrowetting functionality has been suggested for cleaning oil spills and separating oil-water mixtures.<ref name="ERAL2">[http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/ArticleLanding/2011/SM/c0sm01403f H. Burak Eral, R. Ruiter, J. Ruiter, J. M. Oh, C. Semprebon, M. Brinkmann, F. Mugele, "Reversible morphological transitions of a drop on a fiber", Soft Matter, 2011, 7 (11), 5138 – 5143], {{doi|10.1039/C0SM01403F}}</ref>

==International meeting==
An international meeting for electrowetting is held every two years. The most recent meeting was held on June 18 to 20, 2018, at the University of Twente, the Netherlands.<ref>[http://2018.electrowetting.org International Electrowetting Conference 2018]</ref>

The previous hosts of the electrowetting meeting are: Mons (1999), Eindhoven (2000), Grenoble (2002), Blaubeuren (2004), Rochester (2006), Los Angeles (2008), Pohang (2010), Athens (2012), Cincinnati (2014), Taipei (2016).

==See also==
* [[Metal–semiconductor junction]]
* [[Microfluidics]]
* [[Soft matter]]
* [[Wetting]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200221015228/http://fan-tasy.org/ Fan-TASY Lab at National Taiwan University] (archived 2020)
* [https://microfluidics.utoronto.ca/ Wheeler Microfluidics Laboratory] at the University of Toronto
* [http://microfluidics.ee.duke.edu/ Digital Microfluidics Lab at Duke University]
* [https://www.utwente.nl/en/tnw/pcf/ Physics of Complex Fluids at University of Twente]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090725194824/http://www.kruss.de/en/newsletter/newsletter-archives/2006/issue-12/news.html#c5087 Diagram explaining electrowetting]
* [https://www.printedelectronicsworld.com/articles/1461/progress-with-electrowetting-displays Progress with electrowetting displays]
* [http://www.nanolab.uc.edu/ Nanoelectronics Laboratory at UC NanoLab, University of Cincinnati]
** [http://www.nanolab.uc.edu/Research/research.html NanoLab Research at the University of Cincinnati]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mr5m3NVtZzg Liquidvista Low Frequency Electrowetting 6.2-inch Display]
* [http://www.adroit-rd.com/ Full system and devices development with specialization in electrowetting prototyping. Collaboration with the University of Cincinnati.]

[[Category:Display technology]]