View source for Forensic identification

{{Short description|Legal identification of specific objects and materials}}
'''Forensic identification''' is the application of [[forensic science]], or "forensics", and technology to identify specific objects from the [[trace evidence]] they leave, often at a [[crime scene]] or the scene of an accident. Forensic means "for the courts".

==Human identification==
[[File:Blooddroplets.JPG|right|thumb|Droplets of [[human blood]]. In addition to analyzing for [[DNA]], the droplets are round and show no spattering, indicating they impacted at a relatively slow velocity, in this case from a height of two feet.]]

People can be identified by their [[fingerprint]]s. This assertion is supported by the philosophy of [[Dermal papillae|friction ridge]] identification, which states that friction ridge identification is established through the agreement of friction ridge formations, in sequence, having sufficient uniqueness to individualize.

Friction ridge identification is also governed by four premises or statements of facts:
# Friction ridges develop on the fetus in their definitive form prior to birth.
# Friction ridges are persistent throughout life except for permanent scarring, disease, or decomposition after death.
# Friction ridge paths and the details in small areas of friction ridges are unique and never repeated.
# Overall, friction ridge patterns vary within limits which allow for classification.

People can also be identified from traces of their DNA from blood, skin, hair, saliva, and semen<ref>{{cite web | vauthors =  Wittmeyer J | date = 2011 |title=Can DNA Demand a Verdict |url=http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/gel/forensics/|work=Learn Genetics|publisher=The University of Utah|access-date=2011-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209142545/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/gel/forensics/|archive-date=2011-12-09|url-status=dead}}</ref>  by [[DNA fingerprinting]], from their [[ear print analysis|ear print]], from their teeth or bite by [[forensic odontology]], from a photograph or a video recording by [[facial recognition system]]s, from the video recording of their walk by [[gait analysis]], from an audio recording by [[voice analysis]], from their handwriting by [[Questioned Document Examination|handwriting analysis]], from the content of their writings by their writing style (e.g. typical phrases, factual bias, and/or misspellings of words), or from other traces using other [[biometric]] techniques. Many methods that are used in forensic science evidence have been proven to be unreliable. A lot of trials have been reviewed and testimony involving mostly microscopic hair comparison, but also bite mark, shoe print, soil, fiber, and fingerprint comparisons have been overturned because forensic analysts have provided invalid testimony at the trial.

Since forensic identification has been first introduced to the courts in 1980, the first exoneration due to DNA evidence was in 1989 and there have been 336 additional exonerations since then.<ref name="Cole-2009" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.innocenceproject.org/exonerate/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001709/http://www.innocenceproject.org/exonerate/ | archive-date = 2 February 2017 |title=Exonerate the Innocent |website=Innocence Project|access-date= }}</ref> Those who specialize in forensic identification continue to make headway with new discoveries and technological advances to make convictions more accurate.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lehrer M | title = The role of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Instrumental techniques in forensic urine drug testing | journal = Clinics in Laboratory Medicine | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 631–649 | date = December 1998 | pmid = 9891603 | doi = 10.1016/S0272-2712(18)30140-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Forensic Science Laws Database | date = August 2014 | publisher = NCSL: National Conference of State Legislatures. | access-date = 1 February 2016 | url = http://www.ncsl.org/research/civil-and-criminal-justice/dna-laws-database.aspx }}</ref>

[[Body identification]] is a subfield of forensics concerned with identifying someone from their remains, usually from [[Fingerprint|fingerprint analysis]], dental analysis, or [[DNA analysis]].

=== Foot creases ===
[[Forensic podiatry|Feet also have friction ridges]] like fingerprints do. Friction ridges have been widely accepted as a form of identification with fingerprints but not entirely with feet. Feet have creases which remain over time due to the depth it reaches in the dermal layer of the skin, making them permanent.<ref name="Massey-2004">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Massey SL |date=2004 |title= Persistence of creases of the foot and their value for forensic identification purposes|journal=Journal of Forensic Identification|volume=54|issue=3|page=296}}</ref> These creases are valuable when individualizing the owner. The concept of no two fingerprints are alike is also applied to foot creases.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Blake JW |date=1959 |title=Identification of the New Born by Flexure Creases|journal=Journal of Language, Identity & Education|volume=9|issue=9|pages=3–5}}</ref> Foot creases can grow as early as 13 weeks after conception when the [[Anatomical terms of location|volar pads]] begin to grow and when the pads regress, the creases remain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kimura S, Kitagawa T | title = Embryological development of human palmar, plantar, and digital flexion creases | journal = The Anatomical Record | volume = 216 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–197 | date = October 1986 | pmid = 3777451 | doi = 10.1002/ar.1092160211 | s2cid = 19317934 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Qamra SR, Sharma BP, Kaila P | title = Naked foot marks - a preliminary study of identification factors | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 145–152 | date = 1980 | pmid = 7429379 | doi = 10.1016/0379-0738(80)90167-x }}</ref> When foot crease identification is used in a criminal case, it should be used in conjunction with [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and friction ridges to ensure precise identification. There is record of foot crease identification used in a criminal case to solve a murder.<ref name="Massey-2004" /><ref>R. vs. Ybo Airut Jr. Manslaughter Conviction registered in Nunavut Court of Justice, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut Territory, Canada. April 23, 2002 (Offense occurred on December 19, 2000.)</ref> Sometimes with marks left by the foot with ink, blood, mud, or other substances, the appearance of creases or ridges become muddled or extra creases may appear due to cracked skin, folded skin, or fissures. In order to truly compare morphological feature, the prints of feet must be clear enough to distinguish between individuals.

=== Downfalls ===
The two basic conceptual foundations of forensic identification are that everyone is individualized and unique.<ref name="Cole-2009">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Cole SA |date=2009|title=Forensics without uniqueness, conclusions without individualization: the new epistemology of forensic identification.|journal=Law, Probability, and Risk|edition=3|volume=8|issue=3|pages=233–255|doi=10.1093/lpr/mgp016|doi-access=free}}</ref> This individualization belief was invented by a police records clerk, [[Alphonse Bertillon]], based on the idea that "nature never repeats," originating from the father of social statistics, [[Adolphe Quetelet|Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet]]. The belief was passed down through generations being generally accepted, but it was never scientifically proven.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Page M, Taylor J, Blenkin M | title = Forensic identification science evidence since Daubert: Part II--judicial reasoning in decisions to exclude forensic identification evidence on grounds of reliability | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 56 | issue = 4 | pages = 913–917 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21729081 | doi = 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.01776.x | s2cid = 116084170 | edition = 4 }}</ref> There was a study done intending to show that no two fingerprints were the same, but the results were inconclusive.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Cummins H, Midlo C | title =Finger Prints, Palms and Soles: An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics | location = New York | publisher = Dover Publications | date = 1961 }}</ref> Many modern forensic and [[evidentiary]] scholars collectively agree that individualization to one object, such as a fingerprint, bite mark, handwriting, or ear mark is not possible. In court cases, forensic scientists can fall victim to [[observer bias]] when not sufficiently blinded to the case or results of other pertinent tests. This has happened in cases like ''[http://www.ca6.uscourts.gov/opinions.pdf/11a0221p-06.pdf United States v. Green]'' and ''[https://casetext.com/case/state-v-langill-2 State v. Langill]''. Also, the [http://www.forensic-testing.net/proficiency-tests proficiency tests] that forensic analysts must do are often not as demanding to be considered admissible in court.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022|reason=The sentence implies or claims that proficiency tests presently being done are "often not" sufficient for admission in court. That seems contrary to the reality of examiners being permitted to testify. Granted, admissibility is based on much more than such tests. In the end, such a claim needs a reliable source.}}

=== Primary methods ===
According to Interpol,<ref>{{Cite book |last=INTERPOL |title=Disaster Victim Identification Guide |year=2018 |pages=18}}</ref> there are 3 primary methods to human identification: Friction Ridge Analysis, Forensic Odontology, and DNA Analysis. 

==== Friction ridge analysis ====
{{Further|Fingerprint}}

Fingerprints from the hands and feet are unique and remain unchanged (unless major external factors are involved) from birth to death. Even with minor injuries, they regenerate following the same pattern. <ref name="INTERPOL-2018">{{Cite book |last=INTERPOL |title=Annexure 12: method of identification |publisher=Disaster Victim Identification Guide : INTERPOL 2018 |year=2018 |pages=2}}</ref>

Considering the existence of databases in states and countries worldwide containing records of fingerprints from their residents, there is the possibility of searching and comparing fingerprints. This enables an accurate comparison for victim identification. <ref name="INTERPOL-2018" />

==== Odontology analysis ====
{{Further|Forensic dentistry}}

Forensic odontology (dentistry) plays an important role in human identification, especially in cases where individuals are in an advanced stage of decomposition, charred, or skeletonized. This is due to the high resistance of teeth, which can remain intact even after exposure to harsh conditions.<ref name="INTERPOL-2018" />

Considering that many people have visited a dentist and have dental records, there is the possibility of retrieving this data for comparison with post-mortem examination data. Such a method enables quick, cost-effective, and reliable identification.<ref name="INTERPOL-2018" /><ref name="Custodio-2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Custodio LR, Valente-Aguiar MS, Ramos RP, Rossato G, Espicalsky TL | title = Identifying a victim of alligator attack and scavenger fish in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest using smile photographs: a case report | journal = The Journal of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 31–37 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 36027896 | pmc = 9942798 }}</ref><ref name="Reesu-2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reesu GV, Mânica S, Revie GF, Brown NL, Mossey PA | title = Forensic dental identification using two-dimensional photographs of a smile and three-dimensional dental models: A 2D-3D superimposition method | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 313 | pages = 110361 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32563136 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110361 | s2cid = 219959812 | url = https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/publications/380811bf-bd4b-4ab1-aa56-0e54034a143c }}</ref>

The most commonly used ante-mortem data are dental X-rays, dental models, and dental records. However, these data rely on the existence of dental records registered by a dentist. Nevertheless, even if a person does not have such records, a photograph of their smile or an old dental prosthesis can be used for comparison.<ref name="Custodio-2022" /><ref name="Reesu-2020" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Valente-Aguiar MS, Castro-Espicalsky TL, Magalhães T, Dinis-Oliveira RJ | title = Computerized delineation of the teeth and comparison with a smiling photograph: identification of a body skeletonized by cadaverous ichthyofauna action | journal = Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 517–521 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34106426 | doi = 10.1007/s12024-021-00384-y | s2cid = 235373990 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miranda GE, Freitas SG, Maia LV, Melani RF | title = An unusual method of forensic human identification: use of selfie photographs | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 263 | pages = e14–e17 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27138238 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.04.028 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lima de Castro-Espicalsky T, Freitas P, Ribeiro Tinoco RL, Calmon M, Daruge Júnior E, Rossi AC | title = Human identification by the analysis of palatal rugae printed in complete dentures | journal = The Journal of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 57–62 | date = September 2020 | pmid = 33174538 | pmc = 8559903 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Paliwal A, Wanjari S, Parwani R | title = Palatal rugoscopy: Establishing identity | journal = Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 27–31 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 21189987 | pmc = 3009548 | doi = 10.4103/0974-2948.71054 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== DNA identification ====
{{Further|Forensic DNA analysis}}
Forensic [[DNA]] analysis can be a useful tool in aiding forensic identification because DNA is found in almost all cells of our bodies except mature red blood cells. [[Deoxyribonucleic]] acid is located in two different places of the cell, the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]]; which is inherited from both parents, and the [[Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondria]]; inherited maternally. As with fingerprints, an individual's [[DNA profile]] and characteristics are unique.{{citation needed|date=August 2022|reason=See talk.}} Forensic identification using DNA can be useful in different cases such as determining suspects in violent crimes, solving [[DNA paternity testing|paternity]]/maternity, and identifying human remains of victims from mass disasters or missing person cases.<ref name="Butler-2001" /> It is also used to link suspects or victims to each other or to crime scenes. When a sample is located at a crime scene, it must be collected, processed, and transported, along with a chain of custody, to the laboratory for analysis, so that if a DNA profile is generated it can be accepted in court. Proper evidence collection and preservation is crucial to ensure evidence is not being contaminated. Main procedures investigators must use when packaging biological material is allowing the evidence to air dry and then package into paper bags. Plastic bags should never be used on biological evidence because it could degrade DNA or lead to bacterial growth.

DNA can be sourced from [[Organic matter|biological material]] such as semen, blood, saliva, feces, urine, teeth, bone, and hair that is left behind from an individual. There are different [[Presumptive and confirmatory tests|presumptive]] and [[Presumptive and confirmatory tests|confirmatory]] tests used for each type of biological material found at a scene. Presumptive tests are quick, sensitive and are relatively specific to bodily fluids that give the analyst an idea of what might be present. Confirmatory tests confirm what the biological sample is. In addition to looking for biological material at a crime scene, pieces of evidence can also be examined and analyzed for the presence of DNA. Evidence pieces that may have the presence of DNA could include clothing, bedding, weapons, masks, gloves, among many others. This is attributed to [[touch DNA]], where only minute samples are left after an object has been touched. It is defined as “evidence with no visible staining that would likely contain DNA resulting from the transfer of epithelial cells from the skin to an object.” <ref name="Forensic Magazine-2013">{{Cite news | vauthors = Minor J | date = 12 April 2013 |url= https://www.forensicmag.com/article/2013/04/touch-dna-crime-scene-crime-laboratory | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065444/https://www.forensicmag.com/article/2013/04/touch-dna-crime-scene-crime-laboratory | archive-date = 8 November 2018 |title=Touch DNA: From the Crime Scene to the Crime Laboratory |work=Forensic Magazine|access-date=2018-11-07|language=en}}</ref> A [[Forensic Scientist|forensic scientist]] can attempt to obtain a DNA profile from the sample with as few as six cells.<ref name="Forensic Magazine-2013" />

The first step in the DNA process with a piece of evidence is [[DNA extraction|extraction]]. Extraction is a technique used to remove the DNA from the cell. The next step would be quantification which determines how much DNA is present. The third step is [[Amplification of DNA|amplification]] in order to yield multiple copies of DNA. Next is [[DNA separation by silica adsorption|separation]], to separate the DNA out to use for identification. Finally, the analyst can now complete analysis and interpretation of the DNA sample and compare to known profiles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.forensicsciencesimplified.org/dna/how.html|title=DNA Evidence: How It's Done|website=www.forensicsciencesimplified.org|language=en|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref>

An unknown sample found at a crime scene is called a questioned sample. A known sample can be taken either from a suspect or found in a [[database]]. The FBI’s database used for DNA is [[Combined DNA Index System|CODIS]], Combined DNA Index System. It has data at three levels: local, state, and national. The national level data is stored in [[Combined DNA Index System|NDIS]], National DNA Index system. CODIS/NDIS allows analysts to compare their questioned DNA profile among those of arrestees, convicted offenders, and other unknown samples to try and produce investigative leads.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nij.gov/journals/266/Pages/backlogs-codis.aspx|title=What is CODIS? |website=National Institute of Justice|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref> If questioned and known samples are similar, [[statistics]] and interpretation will then be completed. The DNA profile will be compared to a population database and a [[Forensic statistics|random match probability]] will be determined. Random match probability is defined as the chance that an individual selected randomly from a population will have an identical DNA profile to the markers tested.<ref name="Butler-2001">{{Cite book|title=Forensic DNA typing : biology & technology behind STR markers| vauthors = Butler JM |date=2001|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780121479510|location=San Diego|oclc=45406517}}{{page needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> If they do not equal each other, they are not a match, termed exclusion.

During [[Dna Typing|DNA typing]], several markers are examined, termed [[Locus (genetics)|loci]]. When more markers are examined, this could result in either a greater probability that two unrelated individuals will have different [[genotype]]s or adds to the confidence of connecting an individual to an unknown sample.<ref name="Butler-2001" />  One locus difference between a questioned and known sample is enough to exclude that suspect as the contributor.

The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] has identified 13 core STR loci that are effective for human identification. STR is [[short tandem repeats]] which are short DNA regions in the [[genome]] and are 2-6 base pairs in length. STR is common in forensic analysis because they are easily amplified using [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR) and they have unique variation among individuals for human identification. PCR is the technique of copying DNA by making millions of copies. When all 13 core loci are tested on a DNA profile, the random match probability is more than one in a trillion.<ref name="Butler-2001" />

Since DNA was first used in a criminal investigation in 1986, it has aided investigators to solve many cases. DNA profiling is one of the most important tools in forensics and continued research will increase its ability and accuracy to provide more techniques for the future.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Murnaghan I | date = 20 August 2014 |url= http://www.exploredna.co.uk/understanding-forensic-identification.html |title=Understanding Forensic Identification|website=www.exploredna.co.uk|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref>

== Animal identification ==

=== Wildlife forensics ===
There are many different applications for [[wildlife forensics]] and below are only some of the procedures and processes used to distinguish species.

<u>Species identification</u>: The importance of [[species identification]] is most prominent in animal populations that are [[Poaching|illegally hunted]], harvested, and traded,<ref name="Alacs-2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Alacs EA, Georges A, FitzSimmons NN, Robertson J | title = DNA detective: a review of molecular approaches to wildlife forensics | journal = Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 180–194 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20013321 | doi = 10.1007/s12024-009-9131-7 | s2cid = 8217484 }}</ref> such as rhinoceroses, lions, and African elephants. In order to distinguish which species is which, [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]], or mitochondrial DNA, is the most used [[genetic marker]] because it is easier to [[DNA profiling|type]] from highly decomposed and processed tissue compared to [[nuclear DNA]].<ref name="Randi-2000">{{Cite journal| vauthors = Randi E |date=2000| veditors = Baker AJ | location = Malden | publisher = Blackwell Science|title=Mitochondrial DNA|journal=Molecular Methods in Ecology}}</ref> Additionally, the mitochondrial DNA has multiple copies per cell,<ref name="Randi-2000" /> which is another reason it's frequently used. When nuclear DNA is used, certain segments of the strands are amplified in order to compare those to segments of mitochondrial DNA. This comparison is used to figure out related genes and species proximity since distant relatives of animals are closer in proximity in the gene tree.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Vandamme A |date=2003| veditors = Salemi M, Vandamme A |location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|title=Basic concepts of molecular evolution|journal=The Phylogenetic Handbook. A Practical Approach to DNA and Protein Phylogeny.}}</ref> That being said, the comparison process demands precision because mistakes can easily be made due to genes evolving and [[Mutation|mutating]] in the evolution of species.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Maddison WP |date=1997|title=Gene trees in species trees.|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=46|issue=3|pages=523–536|doi=10.1093/sysbio/46.3.523|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<u>Determination of geographic origin:</u> Determining the origin of a certain species aids research in population numbers and [[Data lineage|lineage data]].<ref name="Alacs-2010" /> [[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic]] studies are most often used to find the broad geographic area of which a species reside.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Avise JC, Arnold J, Ball RM, Bermingham E, Lamb T, Neigel JE, Reeb CA, Saunders NC |date=1987|title=Intraspecific phylogeography: the mitochondrial DNA bridge between population genetics and systematics.|journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics|volume=18|pages=489–522|doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.18.1.489 }}</ref> For example, in California seahorses were being sold for traditional medicinal purposes and the phylogenetic data of those seahorses led researchers to find their origin and from which population they came from and what species they were.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Sanders JG, Cribbs JE, Fienberg HG, Hulburd GC, Katz LS, Palumbi SR |s2cid=15874239|author-link6=Stephen R. Palumbi|date=2008|title=The tip of the tail: molecular identification of seahorses for sale in apothecary shops and curio stores in California.|journal=Conservation Genetics|volume=9|pages=65–71|doi=10.1007/s10592-007-9308-0}}</ref> In addition to phylogenetic data, [http://www.uwyo.edu/dbmcd/molmark/practica/practicum4assignment/assignmenttests.htm assignment tests] are used to find the probability of a species belonging to or originating from a specific population and genetic markers of a specimen are utilized.<ref name="Cornuet-1999">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cornuet JM, Piry S, Luikart G, Estoup A, Solignac M | title = New methods employing multilocus genotypes to select or exclude populations as origins of individuals | journal = Genetics | volume = 153 | issue = 4 | pages = 1989–2000 | date = December 1999 | pmid = 10581301 | pmc = 1460843 | doi = 10.1093/genetics/153.4.1989 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = DeYoung RW, Demarais S, Honeycutt RL, Gonzales RA, Gee KL, Anderson JD |date=2003|title=Evaluation of a DNA microsatellite panel useful for genetic exclusion studies in white-tailed deer.|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=31|pages=220–232}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gómez-Díaz E, González-Solis J | title = Geographic assignment of seabirds to their origin: combining morphologic, genetic, and biogeochemical analyses | journal = Ecological Applications | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 1484–1498 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17708223 | doi = 10.1890/06-1232.1 | hdl-access = free | hdl = 2445/61364 }}</ref><ref name="Manel-2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manel S, Gaggiotti OE, Waples RS | title = Assignment methods: matching biological questions with appropriate techniques | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | pages = 136–142 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 16701357 | doi = 10.1016/j.tree.2004.12.004 | s2cid = 3759965 | url = http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1480&context=usdeptcommercepub | edition = 3 }}</ref> These types of tests are most accurate when all potential population's data have been gathered. Statistical analyses are used in assignment tests based on an individual's [[microsatellite]]s or [[Amplified fragment length polymorphism|Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms]] (AFLPs).<ref name="Cornuet-1999" /><ref name="Manel-2005" /><ref name="Campbell-2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell D, Duchesne P, Bernatchez L | title = AFLP utility for population assignment studies: analytical investigation and empirical comparison with microsatellites | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 1979–1991 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12803646 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-294x.2003.01856.x | s2cid = 7092656 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Evanno G, Regnaut S, Goudet J | title = Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: a simulation study | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 14 | issue = 8 | pages = 2611–2620 | date = July 2005 | pmid = 15969739 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02553.x | s2cid = 16002696 | url = https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_2B5D8C9C02FA }}</ref> Using microsatellites in these studies is more favorable than AFLPs because the AFLPs required non-degraded tissue samples and higher errors have been reported when using AFLPs.<ref name="Campbell-2003" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bonin A, Bellemain E, Bronken Eidesen P, Pompanon F, Brochmann C, Taberlet P | title = How to track and assess genotyping errors in population genetics studies | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 13 | issue = 11 | pages = 3261–3273 | date = November 2004 | pmid = 15487987 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2004.02346.x | s2cid = 15620376 }}</ref>

=== Domestic animal forensics ===
Domestic animals such as dogs and cats can be utilized to help solve criminal cases. These can include homicides, sexual assaults, or robberies. DNA evidence from dogs alone have helped over 20 criminal cases in Great Britain and the U.S. since 1996.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Halverson J, Basten C | title = A PCR multiplex and database for forensic DNA identification of dogs | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 352–363 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 15813546 | doi = 10.1520/JFS2004207 | edition = 2 }}</ref> However, there are very few laboratories that are able to process and analyze evidence or data from domestic animals.<ref>{{cite conference | publisher = International Society for Animal Genetics | date =  2008 | title = Cattle Molecular Markers and Parentage Testing Workshop | conference = ISAG Conference | location = Amsterdam, the Netherlands | url = https://www.isag.us/Docs/ISAG2008_CattleParentage.pdf }}</ref> Forensics can be used in animal attacks as well. In cases such as dog attacks, the hair, blood, and saliva surrounding the wounds a victim has can be analyzed to find a match for the attacker.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kanthaswamy S | title = Review: domestic animal forensic genetics - biological evidence, genetic markers, analytical approaches and challenges | journal = Animal Genetics | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 473–484 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26364867 | doi = 10.1111/age.12335 | edition = 5 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In the competitive realm, DNA analysis is used in many cases to find [[Equine drug testing|illegal substances in racehorses]] by urine samples and comparisons of [[STR analysis|STRs]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Marklund S, Sandberg K, Andersson L | year = 1996 | title = Forensic tracing of horse identities using urine samples and DNA markers | journal = Animal Biotechnology | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 145–153 | doi = 10.1080/10495399609525855 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sípoli Marques MA, Pinto Damasceno LM, Gualberto Pereira HM, Caldeira CM, Pereira Dias BF, de Giacomo Vargens D, Amoedo ND, Volkweis RO, Volkweis Viana RO, Rumjanek FD, Aquino Neto FR | display-authors = 6 | title = DNA Typing: An Accessory Evidence in Doping Control | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 50 | issue = 3 | pages = 587–592 | date = May 2005 | pmid = 15932091 | doi = 10.1520/JFS2004248 | s2cid = 25533922 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tobe SS, Reid SJ, Linacre AM | year = 2007 | title = November 15). Successful DNA typing of a drug positive urine sample from a race horse | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 173 | issue = 1| pages = 85–86 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.08.009 }}</ref>

==Product identification==
* [[Copier#Color photocopiers|Color copier]]s and maybe some color [[computer printer]]s [[steganography|steganographically]] embed their identification number as a countermeasure against currency forgeries.
* [[Copier]]s and [[computer printer]]s can be potentially identified by the minor variants of the way they feed the paper through the printing mechanism, leaving [[wikt:banding|banding]] artifacts.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041011.Delp.forensics.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050607082333/http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041011.Delp.forensics.html | archive-date = 7 June 2005 | work = News Service | publisher = Purdue University | date = 12 October 2004 | title = Printer forensics to aid homeland security, tracing counterfeiters }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Viegas J | date = 18 October 2004 | url = http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041011/printer.html | work = Discovery Channel | title = Computer Printers Can Catch Terrorists | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050609074529/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041011/printer.html | archive-date = 2005-06-09 }}</ref> Analysis of the [[toner]]s is also used.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Pellett JD | date = March 2004  |url=http://www.denison.edu/chem/DCS/journal/_pellettv1n1.html | title = The Use of Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy (DRIFTS) in Identifying and Classifying Photocopying Toners | publisher = Denison University |access-date=2007-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070428054254/http://www.denison.edu/chem/DCS/journal/_pellettv1n1.html |archive-date=2007-04-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Document]]s are characterized by the composition of their [[paper]] and [[ink]].
* [[Firearm]]s can be identified by the [[Ballistic fingerprinting|striations on the bullets]] they fired and imprints on the cartridge casings.
* [[Paper shredder#Forensic identification|Paper shredder]]s can be potentially identified in a similar way, by spacing and wear of their blades.
* [[Photo identification]] is used to detect and identify forged digital photos.<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~huangyz/cvpr08_Huang.pdf | vauthors = Huang Y, Long Y | title = Demosaicking Recognition with Applications in Digital Photo Authentication based on a Quadratic Pixel Correlation Model |journal=Proc. IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition |year=2008 |pages=1–8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617081150/http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~huangyz/cvpr08_Huang.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-17 }}</ref>
* [[Typewriter#Forensic examination|Typewriter]]s can be identified by minor variations of positioning and wear of their letters.
* Illegal drugs can be identified by which color it turns when a reagent is added during a color test. Gas Chromatography, Infrared Spectrometry or  Mass Spectrometry is used in combination with the color test to identify the type of drug.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = O'Keefe B |title=Drug Identification Unit |url= http://www.doj.state.wi.us/dles/crimelabs/drug_id.asp | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425125421/http://www.doj.state.wi.us/dles/crimelabs/drug_id.asp | archive-date = 25 April 2012 |work=Law Enforcement Services|publisher=Wisconsin Department of Justice|access-date=2011-12-12}}</ref>

==Networks==
* Cars can be automatically found on [[Closed-circuit television|CCTV]] records by [[automatic number plate recognition]].
* Computers connected to the [[Internet]] can often be identified by their [[IP address]] or [[MAC address]].
* Radio [[transceiver]]s can be potentially identified by minute variations of their output signal.
* [[Social networks]] can be discovered by [[Social network analysis|network analysis]] of banking, telecommunication and postal records.

==Applications==
Sometimes, [[manufacturer]]s and [[film distributor]]s may intentionally leave subtle forensic markings on their products to identify them in case of piracy or involvement in a crime. (''Cf.'' [[watermark]], [[digital watermark]], [[steganography]]. [[DNA marking]].)

== Organizations ==
* [[Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners]]
* [[Canadian Identification Society]]
* [[International Association for Identification]]

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Biometrics|Biometric identification]]
* [[Computer forensics]]
* [[Data remanence]]
* [[Digital traces]]
* [[Entomological evidence collection]]
* [[Forensic anthropology]]
* [[Forensic dentistry]] (odontology)
* [[Forensic engineering]]
* [[Forensic profiling]]
* [[Forensic science]]
* [[Identification (biology)]]
* [[Mass surveillance]]
* [[Privacy]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[Trace evidence]]
* [[Questioned Document Examination]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181227190707/http://bio-forensics.com/ bio-forensics.com], bioFORENSICS - Tools for forensic identification
* [http://www.onin.com/fp/ Onin.com], Forensic Fingerprinting
* [http://www.cis-sci.ca Cis.sci.ca], Canadian Identification Society

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Forensic Identification}}
[[Category:Surveillance]]
[[Category:Forensic disciplines|Identification]]