View source for Information management

{{Short description|Organisational activity concerning information lifecycle}}
{{for|the library science degree|Master of Information Management}}
{{distinguish|Content management|Knowledge management|Data management}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2011}}
{{Information science}}
{{LibraryandInformation-TopicSidebar}}
'''Information management''' ('''IM''') is the appropriate and optimized capture, storage, retrieval, and use of [[information]]. It may be [[personal information management]] or organizational. IM for [[organization]]s concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of [[information]] from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposal through [[archiving]] or deletion and extraction.

This cycle of information organisation involves a variety of [[stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholder]]s, including those who are responsible for assuring the [[quality (business)|quality]], [[accessibility]] and [[utility]] of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe [[Data storage device|storage]] and [[:wikt:disposal|disposal]]; and those who need it for [[decision making]]. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management [[policies]].

Information management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the [[planning]], [[organizing (management)|organizing]], structuring, [[Business process|process]]ing, [[Internal control|control]]ling, [[evaluation]] and [[Data reporting|reporting]] of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.

Information management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of [[data]], [[system]]s, [[technology]], [[Business process|process]]es and – where the availability of information is critical to organisational success – [[strategy]]. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the [[Project life cycle|life cycle]] of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a [[product (business)|product]] or a service.

==History==

===Emergent ideas out of data management===
In the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called [[data management]]: [[punched cards]], [[magnetic tape]]s and other record-keeping [[Digital media|media]], involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of [[information technology]] began to be recognised: for example a single [[Integrated circuit|chip]] storing a whole [[book]], or [[electronic mail]] moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.<ref name="Evans">Evans, C., 1979. ''The Mighty Micro'', London: Victor Gollancz.</ref> With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,<ref name="Venkat0">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. ''[[MIT Sloan Management Review]]'', 35(2), pp.73–87</ref> information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as [[BP]] transformed the vocabulary of what was then "[[IT management]]", so that “[[systems analyst]]s” became “[[business analyst]]s”, “monopoly supply” became a mixture of “[[insourcing]]” and “[[outsourcing]]”, and the large IT function was transformed into “lean teams” that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for [[business benefit]].<ref name="Cross and Earl">Cross, J. & Earl, M., 1997. Transformation of the IT function at British Petroleum. ''MIS Quarterly'', 21(4), page 403</ref> The scope of [[senior management]] interest in information at BP extended from the creation of value through improved [[business process]]es, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or “[[application software|applications]]”) that were operated on [[IT infrastructure]] that was [[outsource]]d.<ref name="Cross and Earl" /> In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for [[senior management]] attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems [[project]]s and [[business change]] well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.<ref name="Ward and Peppard">Ward, J. & Peppard, J., 2002. ''Strategic Planning for Information Systems'' (3rd Edition), Chichester: Wiley</ref>

===Positioning information management in the bigger picture===
In the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,<ref name="Venkat2">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. ''Sloan Management Review'', 35(2), pp.73–87.</ref> proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the  managements [[Data management|of data]], information, and [[knowledge management|knowledge]] (see the figure)) argued that:

* Data that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be ''interpreted'' in order to render information.
* The information in our information systems has to be ''understood'' in order to emerge as knowledge.
* Knowledge allows managers to ''take effective decisions''.
* Effective decisions have to lead to ''appropriate actions''. 
* Appropriate actions are expected to deliver ''meaningful results''.

[[File:DIKAR model.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|This simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).<ref name="Ward and Peppard"/>]]
This is often referred to as the DIKAR model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,<ref name="Venkat1">Venkatraman, N., 1996. Managing IT resources as a value center, ''IS Executive Seminar Series, Cranfield School of Management''</ref> it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management.  The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.<ref name="Bytheway">Bytheway, A., 2015. [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319119083 Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge], Geneva: Springer</ref>

==Theoretical background==

===Behavioural and organisational theories===
It is commonly believed that good information management is crucial to the smooth working of organisations, and although there is no commonly accepted [[theory]] of information management ''per se'', behavioural and organisational theories help. Following the [[behavioural science]] theory of management, mainly developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] and prominently supported by March and Simon,<ref name="March and Simon" /> most of what goes on in modern organizations is actually information handling and decision making. One crucial factor in information handling and decision making is an individual's ability to process information and to make decisions under limitations that might derive from the context: a person's age, the situational complexity, or a lack of requisite quality in the information that is at hand – all of which is exacerbated by the rapid advance of technology and the new kinds of [[system]] that it enables, especially as the [[social web]] emerges as a phenomenon that business cannot ignore. And yet, well before there was any general recognition of the importance of information management in organisations, March and Simon <ref name="March and Simon">March, J.G. & Simon, H.A., 1958. ''Organizations'', Wiley</ref> argued that organizations have to be considered as [[cooperative systems]], with a high level of information processing and a vast need for decision making at various levels. Instead of using the model of the "[[economic man]]", as advocated in classical theory <ref name="Opp">see Opp, K.-D., 1985. Sociology and economic man. ''Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft/Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics'', pp.213–243</ref> they proposed "[[administrative man]]" as an alternative, based on their argumentation about the cognitive limits of rationality. Additionally they proposed the notion of [[satisficing]], which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency.<ref name="Winter">Winter, S.G., 2000. The satisficing principle in capability learning. ''Strategic Management Journal'', 21(10-11), pp.981–996</ref>

===Economic theory===
In addition to the organisational factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic and environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time and effort required.<ref name="Hedberg">Hedberg, Bo (1981), "How organizations learn and unlearn", in: Nyström, P.C. & Starbuck, W.H., ''Handbook of Organizational Design'', Oxford University Press</ref> The [[transaction cost]] associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established organizational rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, leading to sub-optimum outcomes 
.<ref name="Mackenzie">Mackenzie K.D. (1978), ''Organizational Structures'', AHM Publishing Corporation</ref><ref name="Mullins">Mullins, L.J (1993), ''Management and Organizational Behaviours'', 3rd ed., Pitman Publishing</ref> This is an issue that has been presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes.<ref name="Wigand">Wigand, Rolf T., Picot, Arnold and Reichwald, Ralf (1997), ''Information, Organization and Management: Expanding Markets and Corporate Boundaries'', Wiley & Sons</ref>

==Strategic information management==

===Background===
According to the Carnegie Mellon School an organization's ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial [[competence (human resources)|competency]], and an organization's strategies must be designed to improve information processing capability <ref name="Cyert">Cyert, R.M. & March, J.G., 1959. A behavioural theory of organizational objectives. ''Modern Organization Theory'', Wiley, New York, pp.76–90</ref> and as information systems that provide that capability became formalised and automated, competencies were severely tested at many levels.<ref name="Morton">Morton, M.S.S., 1991. ''The corporation of the 1990s: Information technology and organizational transformation'', Oxford University Press</ref> It was recognised that organisations needed to be able to learn and adapt in ways that were never so evident before <ref name="Senge">Senge, P.M., 1990. ''The fifth discipline'', Doubleday</ref> and academics began to organise and publish definitive works concerning the strategic management of information, and information systems.<ref name="Ward and Peppard"/><ref name="Earl">Earl, M.J., 1989. ''Management Strategies for Information Technology'', Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.</ref> Concurrently, the ideas of [[business process]] management <ref name="Hammer and Champy">Hammer, M. & Champy, J., 2009. ''Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution'', A, Zondervan</ref> and [[knowledge management]]<ref name="Nonaka and Takeuchi">Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H., 1995. ''The knowledge creating company: how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation'', New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press</ref> although much of the optimistic early thinking about [[business process redesign]] has since been discredited in the information management literature.<ref name="Belmiro">Belmiro, T., Gardiner, P. & Simmons, J., 1997. Business process re-engineering—A discredited vocabulary? ''International Journal of Information Management'', 17(1), pp.21–33</ref> In the strategic studies field, it is considered of the highest priority the understanding of the information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive.<ref>Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3-13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, 116 Lake View Parkway, Suffolk, VA., p. 18.</ref>

===Aligning technology and business strategy with information management===

Venkatraman has provided a simple view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well – the [[DIKAR]] model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed.<ref name="Henderson and Venkat">Henderson, J.C. & Venkatraman, N., 1993. Strategic alignment: leveraging information technology for transforming organizations. ''IBM Systems Journal'', 32(1), pp.4–16</ref> This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting,<ref name="Zachman">Zachman, J. A. (1987). A framework for information systems architecture. ''IBM Systems Journal'', 26(3), 590–616</ref> practice <ref name="Cross">Cross, J., 1995. IT outsourcing : British Petroleum's competitive approach. ''Harvard Business Review'', 73(3), p.94</ref> and academia.<ref name="Ward2">Ward, J. & Daniel, E., 2005. ''Benefits Management: Delivering Value from IS and IT Investments'', Chichester: Wiley</ref>

===A contemporary portfolio model for information===
Bytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.<ref name="Bytheway" />  At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure).

[[File:An Information Portfolio.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|This portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured.]]

Such an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages:

'''Stage 1''': Taking advantage of [[public information]]: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.<ref name="Ashbrook">Ashbrook, D. & Starner, T., 2003. Using GPS to learn significant locations and predict movement across multiple users. ''Personal and Ubiquitous Computing'', 7(5), pp.275–286</ref>

'''Stage 2''': Tagging the noise on the [[World Wide Web]]: use existing schemes such as [[post code]]s and [[GPS]] data or more typically by adding “tags”, or construct a formal [[ontology (information science)|ontology]] that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.<ref name="Shirky">Shirky, C., 2005. Shirky: Ontology is Overrated -- Categories, Links, and Tags. ''Clay Shirky's Writings About the Internet''. Available at: http://shirky.com/writings/ontology_overrated.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122714/http://www.shirky.com/writings/ontology_overrated.html |date=December 20, 2016 }} [Accessed May 23, 2013]</ref>

'''Stage 3''': Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model – an ontology, or an [[entity-relationship model]].<ref name="Noy">Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L. & others, 2001. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology, ''Stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report KSL-01-05 and Stanford medical informatics technical report SMI-2001-0880''</ref>

'''Stage 4''': Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the [[social web]] and from the miniature [[telemetry]] systems used in personal [[health management]], new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. [[Map-reduce]] methods, originating from [[functional programming]], are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival [[dataset]]s that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.<ref name="Chu">Chu, C. et al., 2007. Map-reduce for machine learning on multicore. ''Advances in neural information processing systems'', 19, p.281</ref>

===Competencies to manage information well===
In 2004, the management system "[[Information Management Body of Knowledge]]" was first published on the World Wide Web<ref name="IMBOK">IMBOK, 2004. ''The Information Management Body of Knowledge''. Available at: http://www.imbok.org [Accessed May 12, 2015]</ref> 
and set out to show that the required management competencies to derive real benefits from an investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies comprises six “knowledge” areas and four “process” areas:

[[File:IMBOK Framework.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|This framework is the basis of organising the "Information Management Body of Knowledge" first made available in 2004. This version is adapted by the addition of "Business information" in 2014.]]
;The information management knowledge areas
The IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six areas of required management competency, two of which (“business process management” and “business information management”) are very closely related.<ref name="Bytheway2">Bytheway, A., 2015. ''Investing in Information:  the Information Management Body of Knowledge'', Geneva: Springer,
 p29</ref>

* '''Information technology''': The pace of change of [[technology]] and the pressure to constantly acquire the newest technological products can undermine the stability of the [[infrastructure]] that supports systems, and thereby optimises [[business process]]es and delivers benefits. It is necessary to manage the “[[supply side]]” and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a [[commodity]].<ref name="Carr">Carr, N., 2003. IT doesn't matter. In ''Wringing real value from IT''. HBR OnPoint, pp. 3–10</ref>
* '''Information system''': While historically information systems were developed [[in-house]], over the years it has become possible to acquire most of the software systems that an organisation needs from the [[Application software|software package]] industry. However, there is still the potential for [[competitive advantage]] from the implementation of new systems ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations.<ref name="Ward and Peppard"/>
* '''Business processes and Business information''': [[Information system]]s are applied to [[business process]]es in order to improve them, and they bring data to the business that becomes useful as [[business information]]. [[Business process management]] is still seen as a relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted, and it has been difficult in many cases; business ''information'' management is even more of a challenge.<ref name="Belmiro0">Belmiro, T.R. et al., 2000. Are BPR practitioners really addressing business processes? ''International Journal of Operations & Production Management'', 20(10), pp.1183–1203</ref><ref name="Davenport">Davenport, T.H. & Short, J., 2003. Information technology and business process redesign. ''Operations management: critical perspectives on business and management'', 1, p.97</ref>
* '''Business benefit''': What are the benefits that we are seeking? It is necessary not only to be brutally honest about what ''can'' be achieved, but also to ensure the active management and assessment of benefit delivery. Since the emergence and popularisation of the [[Balanced scorecard]]<ref name="Kaplan and Norton">Kaplan, R. & Norton, D., 1996. ''The balanced scorecard - translating strategy into action'', Boston MA: Harvard University Press</ref> there has been huge interest in business performance management but not much serious effort has been made to relate business performance management to the benefits of information technology investments and the introduction of new [[information system]]s until the turn of the [[millennium]].<ref name="Ward2" />
* '''Business strategy''': Although a long way from the workaday issues of managing information in organisations, [[strategy]] in most organisations simply has to be informed by information technology and information systems opportunities, whether to address poor performance or to improve differentiation and [[Competition (companies)|competitiveness]]. Strategic analysis tools such as the [[value chain]] and [[critical success factor]] analysis are directly dependent on proper attention to the information that is (or could be) managed <ref name="Ward and Peppard"/>

;The information management processes
Even with full capability and competency within the six knowledge areas, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem lies in the migration of ideas and information management value from one area of competency to another. Summarising what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected secondary references):<ref name="Bytheway3">Bytheway, A., 2015. ''Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge'', Geneva: Springer,
 p31</ref>

* '''Projects''': Information technology is without value until it is engineered into information systems that meet the needs of the business by means of good [[project management]].<ref name="Schwalbe">Schwalbe, K., 2013. ''Information technology project management'', Cengage Learning</ref>
* '''Business change''': The best information systems succeed in delivering benefits through the achievement of change within the business systems, but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands upon their skills in the ways that new information systems often do. Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the [[public sector]] has succeeded with information technology induced [[business change]].<ref name="Scholl">Scholl, H.J., 2005. E-government-induced business process change (BPC): An empirical study of current practices. ''International Journal of Electronic Government Research'' (IJEGR), 1(2), pp.27–49</ref>
* '''Business operations''': With new systems in place, with [[business process]]es and [[business information]] improved, and with staff finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the business can get to work, even when new systems extend far beyond the boundaries of a single business.<ref name="Seed">Saeed, K.A., Malhotra, M.K. & Grover, V., 2005. Examining the Impact of Interorganizational Systems on Process Efficiency and Sourcing Leverage in Buyer–Supplier Dyads. ''Decision Sciences'', 36(3), pp.365–396</ref>
* '''Performance management''': [[Investment]]s are no longer solely about financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal efficiency, [[customer satisfaction]], and with [[organisational learning]] and development.<ref name="Kaplan and Norton" />

===Summary===
There are always many ways to see a business, and the information management viewpoint is only one way. It is important to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute to strategy – it is not only good information management that moves a business forwards. [[Corporate governance]], [[human resource management]], [[product development]] and [[marketing]] will all have an important role to play in strategic ways, and we must not see one domain of activity alone as the sole source of strategic success. On the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing are all dependent on effective information management, and so in the final analysis our competency to manage information well, on the broad basis that is offered here, can be said to be predominant.

==Operationalising information management==

===Managing requisite change===
Organizations are often confronted with many information management challenges and issues at the [[operational level]], especially when [[organisational change]] is engendered. The novelty of new [[systems architecture]]s and a lack of experience with new styles of information management requires a level of organisational [[change management]] that is notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general organisational reluctance to change, to enable new forms of information management, there might be (for example): a shortfall in the requisite resources, a failure to acknowledge new classes of information and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political manoeuvring that undermines the operation of the whole organisation.<ref name="Knights and Murray">Knights, D. & Murray, F., 1994. ''Managers Divided'', Chichester: John Wiley</ref> However, the implementation of new forms of information management should normally lead to operational benefits.

===The early work of Galbraith===
In early work, taking an information processing view of organisation design, Jay [[Galbraith]] has identified five tactical areas to increase information processing capacity and reduce the need for information processing.<ref name="Galbraith">Galbraith, J.R., 1977. ''Organization design'', Addison Wesley</ref>

* Developing, implementing, and monitoring all aspects of the “environment” of an organization.
* Creation of slack resources so as to decrease the load on the overall [[hierarchy]] of resources and to reduce information processing relating to overload.
* Creation of self-contained tasks with defined boundaries and that can achieve proper closure, and with all the [[resource]]s at hand required to perform the task.
* Recognition of lateral relations that cut across functional units, so as to move decision power to the [[Business process|process]] instead of fragmenting it within the [[hierarchy]].
* Investment in vertical information systems that route [[information flow]]s for a specific task (or set of tasks) in accordance to the applied [[business logic]].

===The matrix organisation===
The lateral relations concept leads to an organizational form that is different from the simple hierarchy, the “[[matrix organization]]”.  This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) view of an organisation and the horizontal (product or project) view of the work that it does visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix organization is one management response to a persistent fluidity of external demand, avoiding multifarious and spurious responses to episodic demands that tend to be dealt with individually.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Balanced scorecard]]
* [[Business process]]
* [[Content management]]
* [[Data management]]
* [[Information excellence]]
* [[Information Management Body of Knowledge]]
* [[Information Resources Management Journal]]
* [[Information system]]
* [[Information technology]]
* [[Journal of Global Information Management]]
* [[Knowledge management]]
* [[Master of Information Management]]
* [[Project management]]
* [[Records management]]
* [[Strategic management]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}

{{Informatics}}
{{Management}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Information management| ]]
[[Category:Information]]
[[Category:Information systems]]
[[Category:Works about information]]