View source for Kinesiology

{{Short description|Study of human body movement}}
{{About|the study of human movement|the alternative medicine technique|Applied kinesiology}}
[[File:Representative Kinesiology Images.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|A series of images that represent research (left) and practice (right) in the field of academic kinesiology]]

'''Kinesiology''' ({{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|κίνησις}}'' ({{grc-transl|κίνησις}})|movement||''{{wikt-lang|grc|-λογία}}'' {{grc-transl|[[-logy|-λογία]]}}|study of}}) is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses [[physiological]], [[anatomical]], [[Biomechanics|biomechanical]], [[Pathology|pathological]], [[neuropsychological]] principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health include biomechanics and [[orthopedics]]; strength and [[Classical conditioning|conditioning]]; [[sport psychology]]; [[motor control]]; skill acquisition and [[motor learning]]; methods of [[Rehabilitation psychology|rehabilitation]], such as [[Physical therapy|physical]] and [[occupational therapy]]; and sport and [[exercise physiology]]. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, [[electrophysiology]] of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.<ref>Bodo Rosenhahn, Reinhard Klette and Dimitris Metaxas (eds.). Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. Volume 36 in ''Computational Imaging and Vision'', Springer, Dordrecht, 2007</ref><ref>Ahmed Elgammal, Bodo Rosenhahn, and Reinhard Klette (eds.) Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. 2nd Workshop, in conjunction with ICCV 2007, Rio de Janeiro, ''Lecture Notes in Computer Science'', LNCS 4814, Springer, Berlin, 2007</ref>

== Basics ==
Kinesiology studies the science of human movement, performance, and function by applying the fundamental sciences of [[Cell Biology]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Chemistry]], [[Biochemistry]], [[Biophysics]], [[Biomechanics]], [[Biomathematics]], [[Biostatistics]], [[Anatomy]], [[Physiology]], [[Exercise Physiology]], [[Pathophysiology]], [[Neuroscience]], and [[Nutritional science]]. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs.

The term "kinesiologist" is not a licensed nor professional designation in many countries, with the notable exception of Canada. Individuals with training in this area can teach physical education, work as personal trainers and sport coaches, provide consulting services, conduct research and develop policies related to rehabilitation, human motor performance, [[ergonomics]], and occupational health and safety. In North America, kinesiologists may study to earn a [[Bachelor of Science]], [[Master of Science]], or [[Doctorate of Philosophy]] degree in Kinesiology or a [[Bachelor's degree#Kinesiology|Bachelor of Kinesiology]] degree, while in Australia or New Zealand, they are often conferred an Applied Science (Human Movement) degree (or higher). Many doctoral level faculty in North American kinesiology programs received their doctoral training in related disciplines, such as neuroscience, mechanical engineering, psychology, and physiology.

In 1965, the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]] created the United States' first Department of Exercise Science (now called Kinesiology) under the leadership of visionary researchers and academicians in the field of exercise science.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.umass.edu/sphhs/kinesiology/about-us/history#:~:text=In%201965%2C%20the%20University%20of,the%20field%20of%20exercise%20science.|title=History - School of Public Health & Health Sciences|website=umass.edu|access-date=28 February 2021}}</ref> In 1967, the [[University of Waterloo]] launched Canada's first kinesiology department.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/kin/|title=Home - Kinesiology|date=20 August 2012|website=uwaterloo.ca|access-date=27 April 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021063436/http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/kin/|archive-date=21 October 2012}}</ref>

== Principles ==

=== Adaptation through exercise ===
[[File:Aerobic Anaerobic Exercise Adaptations.jpg|upright=1.8|thumb|Summary of long-term adaptations to regular aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in [[stroke volume]] (SV)<ref name=Exercise_SV>{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=E|author2=Næss, MS |author3=Hoff, J |author4=Albert, TL |author5=Pham, Q |author6=Richardson, RS |author7= Helgerud, J |title=Exercise-training-induced changes in metabolic capacity with age: the role of central cardiovascular plasticity|journal=Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands)|date=Nov 16, 2013|pmid=24243396|pmc=4039249|doi=10.1007/s11357-013-9596-x |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=665–676}}</ref> and maximal aerobic capacity ([[VO2 max|VO<sub>2</sub> max]]),<ref name=Exercise_SV /><ref name=AerobicMotorCapability /> as well as a decrease in [[resting heart rate]] (RHR).<ref name=Exercise_RHR1>{{cite journal|last=Wilmore|first=JH|author2=Stanforth, PR |author3=Gagnon, J |author4=Leon, AS |author5=Rao, DC |author6=Skinner, JS |author7= Bouchard, C |title=Endurance exercise training has a minimal effect on resting heart rate: the HERITAGE Study.|journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise|date=July 1996|volume=28|issue=7|pages=829–35|pmid=8832536|doi=10.1097/00005768-199607000-00009|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR2>{{cite journal |last=Carter|first=JB |author2=Banister, EW |author3=Blaber, AP |title=Effect of endurance exercise on autonomic control of heart rate.|journal=Sports Medicine|year=2003|volume=33|issue=1|pages=33–46 |pmid=12477376|doi=10.2165/00007256-200333010-00003|s2cid=40393053 }}</ref><ref name=Exercise_RHR3>{{cite journal|last=Chen|first=Chao-Yin|author2=Dicarlo, Stephen E. |title=Endurance exercise training-induced resting Bradycardia: A brief review |journal=Sports Medicine, Training and Rehabilitation |date=January 1998|volume=8|issue=1|pages=37–77|doi=10.1080/15438629709512518}}</ref> Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include [[muscular hypertrophy]],<ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy>{{cite journal|last=Crewther|first=BT|author2=Heke, TL |author3=Keogh, JW |title=The effects of a resistance-training program on strength, body composition and baseline hormones in male athletes training concurrently for rugby union 7's.|journal=The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness|date=February 2013|volume=53|issue=1|pages=34–41|pmid=23470909}}</ref><ref name=Exercise_Hypertrophy2>{{cite journal |last=Schoenfeld |first=BJ |title=Postexercise hypertrophic adaptations: a reexamination of the hormone hypothesis and its applicability to resistance training program design|journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |date=June 2013 |volume=27 |issue=6|pages=1720–30|pmid=23442269|doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e31828ddd53|s2cid=25068522 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f579/591bec4dbeefc4c272c3d7e980c17ce1c9b1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229011526/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f579/591bec4dbeefc4c272c3d7e980c17ce1c9b1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-02-29 }}</ref> an increase in the [[physiological cross-sectional area]] (PCSA) of muscle(s), and an increase in [[neural drive]],<ref name=Exercise_Neuraldrive>{{cite journal|last=Dalgas|first=U|author2=Stenager, E |author3=Lund, C |author4=Rasmussen, C |author5=Petersen, T |author6=Sørensen, H |author7=Ingemann-Hansen, T |author8= Overgaard, K |title=Neural drive increases following resistance training in patients with multiple sclerosis.|journal=Journal of Neurology|date=July 2013|volume=260|issue=7|pages=1822–32|pmid=23483214|doi=10.1007/s00415-013-6884-4|s2cid=848583}}</ref><ref name=AnaerobicStrength /> both of which lead to increased [[muscular strength]].<ref name=Exercise_MuscularStrength>{{cite journal|last=Folland|first=JP|author2=Williams, AG |title=The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength.|journal=Sports Medicine|year=2007|volume=37|issue=2|pages=145–68|pmid=17241104|doi=10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004|s2cid=9070800}}</ref> Neural adaptations begin more quickly and plateau prior to the hypertrophic response.<ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy1>{{cite journal|last=Moritani|first=T|author2=deVries, HA |title=Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of muscle strength gain.|journal=American Journal of Physical Medicine|date=June 1979|volume=58|issue=3|pages=115–30|pmid=453338}}</ref><ref name=NeuralvsHypertrophy2>{{cite journal|last=Narici|first=MV|author2=Roi, GS |author3=Landoni, L |author4=Minetti, AE |author5= Cerretelli, P |title=Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps.|journal=European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology|year=1989|volume=59|issue=4|pages=310–9|pmid=2583179|doi=10.1007/bf02388334|s2cid=2231992}}</ref>]]

Adaptation through [[exercise]] is a key principle of kinesiology that relates to improved fitness in athletes as well as health and wellness in clinical populations. Exercise is a simple and established intervention for many [[movement disorders]] and [[musculoskeletal disorder|musculoskeletal conditions]] due to the [[neuroplasticity]] of the brain<ref name=ExerciseNeuroplasiticity>{{cite journal|last=Forrester|first=LW|author2=Wheaton, LA |author3=Luft, AR |title=Exercise-mediated locomotor recovery and lower-limb neuroplasticity after stroke.|journal=Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development|year=2008|volume=45|issue=2|pages=205–20|pmid=18566939|doi=10.1682/jrrd.2007.02.0034|doi-access=free}}</ref> and the adaptability of the [[musculoskeletal system]].<ref name=Exercise_Neuraldrive/><ref name=AnaerobicStrength /><ref name=Exercise_MuscularStrength/> Therapeutic exercise has been shown to improve [[motor control|neuromotor control]] and motor capabilities in both normal<ref name=ExerciseMotorControl>{{cite journal|last=Roig|first=M|author2=Skriver, K |author3=Lundbye-Jensen, J |author4=Kiens, B |author5= Nielsen, JB |title=A single bout of exercise improves motor memory|journal=PLOS ONE|year=2012|volume=7|issue=9|pages=e44594|pmid=22973462|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0044594 |pmc=3433433|bibcode=2012PLoSO...744594R|doi-access=free}}</ref> and pathological populations.<ref name=AerobicMotorCapability>{{cite journal|last=Potempa|first=K|author2=Lopez, M |author3=Braun, LT |author4=Szidon, JP |author5=Fogg, L |author6= Tincknell, T |title=Physiological outcomes of aerobic exercise training in hemiparetic stroke patients.|journal=Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation|date=January 1995|volume=26|issue=1|pages=101–5 |pmid=7839377 |doi=10.1161/01.str.26.1.101}}</ref><ref name=ExerciseNeuroplasticity>{{cite journal|last=Hirsch|first=MA|author2=Farley, BG |title=Exercise and neuroplasticity in persons living with Parkinson's disease |journal=European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine|date=June 2009|volume=45|issue=2|pages=215–29|pmid=19532109}}</ref>

There are many different types of exercise interventions that can be applied in kinesiology to athletic, normal, and clinical populations. [[Aerobic exercise]] interventions help to improve cardiovascular endurance.<ref name=CardiovascularExercise>{{cite journal|last=Schjerve|first=IE |author2=Tyldum, GA |author3=Tjønna, AE |author4=Stølen, T |author5=Loennechen, JP |author6=Hansen, HE |author7=Haram, PM |author8=Heinrich, G |author9=Bye, A |author10=Najjar, SM |author11=Smith, GL |author12=Slørdahl, SA |author13=Kemi, OJ |author14=Wisløff, U|title=Both aerobic endurance and strength training programmes improve cardiovascular health in obese adults.|journal=Clinical Science|date=November 2008|volume=115|issue=9|pages=283–93|pmid=18338980|doi=10.1042/CS20070332 |s2cid=1201555 }}</ref> Anaerobic [[strength training]] programs can increase muscular strength,<ref name=AnaerobicStrength>{{cite journal|last=Staron|first=RS|author2=Karapondo, DL |author3=Kraemer, WJ |author4=Fry, AC |author5=Gordon, SE |author6=Falkel, JE |author7=Hagerman, FC |author8= Hikida, RS |title=Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women.|journal=Journal of Applied Physiology|date=March 1994|volume=76|issue=3|pages=1247–55 |pmid=8005869 |doi=10.1152/jappl.1994.76.3.1247|s2cid=24328546 }}</ref> power,<ref name=AnaerobicPower>{{cite journal|last=Jozsi|first=AC|author2=Campbell, WW |author3=Joseph, L |author4=Davey, SL |author5= Evans, WJ |title=Changes in power with resistance training in older and younger men and women.|journal=The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences|date=November 1999|volume=54|issue=11|pages=M591–6 |pmid=10619323 |doi=10.1093/gerona/54.11.m591 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[lean body mass]].<ref name=Campbell1994>{{cite journal|last=Campbell|first=WW|author2=Crim, MC |author3=Young, VR |author4= Evans, WJ |title=Increased energy requirements and changes in body composition with resistance training in older adults.|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date=August 1994|volume=60|issue=2|pages=167–75|pmid=8030593|doi=10.1093/ajcn/60.2.167|doi-access=free}}</ref> Decreased [[falling (accident)|risk of falls]] and increased neuromuscular control can be attributed to [[balance (ability)|balance]] intervention programs.<ref name=ExerciseBalance>{{cite journal|last=El-Khoury|first=F|author2=Cassou, B |author3=Charles, MA |author4= Dargent-Molina, P |title=The effect of fall prevention exercise programmes on fall induced injuries in community dwelling older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials|journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)|date=Oct 29, 2013|volume=347|issue=20|pages=f6234|pmid=24169944|pmc=3812467|doi=10.1136/bmj.f6234 }}</ref> [[Flexibility]] programs can increase functional range of motion and reduce the risk of injury.<ref name=ExerciseFlexibility>{{cite journal|last=Hartig|first=DE|author2=Henderson, JM |title=Increasing hamstring flexibility decreases lower extremity overuse injuries in military basic trainees.|journal=The American Journal of Sports Medicine|date=Mar–Apr 1999|volume=27|issue=2|pages=173–6|pmid=10102097|doi=10.1177/03635465990270021001|s2cid=26657402}}</ref>

As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of [[Depression (mood)|depression]]<ref name=ExerciseSleepHabits>{{cite journal|last=Brand|first=S|author2=Gerber, M |author3=Beck, J |author4=Hatzinger, M |author5=Pühse, U |author6= Holsboer-Trachsler, E |title=High exercise levels are related to favorable sleep patterns and psychological functioning in adolescents: a comparison of athletes and controls.|journal=The Journal of Adolescent Health |date=February 2010|volume=46|issue=2|pages=133–41|pmid=20113919|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.06.018}}</ref> and risk of [[cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular]]<ref name=ExerciseCardioRisk>{{cite journal|last=Cederberg|first=H |author2=Mikkola, I |author3=Jokelainen, J |author4=Laakso, M |author5=Härkönen, P |author6=Ikäheimo, T |author7=Laakso, M |author8= Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi, S |title=Exercise during military training improves cardiovascular risk factors in young men.|journal=Atherosclerosis|date=June 2011|volume=216|issue=2|pages=489–95|pmid=21402378|doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.02.037}}</ref> and [[metabolic diseases]].<ref name=ExerciseMetabolicDiseases>{{cite journal|last=Borghouts|first=LB|author2=Keizer, HA |title=Exercise and insulin sensitivity: a review.|journal=International Journal of Sports Medicine|date=January 2000 |volume=21|issue=1|pages=1–12|pmid=10683091|doi=10.1055/s-2000-8847|s2cid=21321775 }}</ref> Additionally, they can help to improve [[quality of life]],<ref name=ExerciseQOL>{{cite journal|last=Tsai|first=JC|author2=Yang, HY |author3=Wang, WH |author4=Hsieh, MH |author5=Chen, PT |author6=Kao, CC |author7=Kao, PF |author8=Wang, CH |author9= Chan, P |title=The beneficial effect of regular endurance exercise training on blood pressure and quality of life in patients with hypertension.|journal=Clinical and Experimental Hypertension |date=April 2004|volume=26|issue=3|pages=255–65|pmid=15132303|doi=10.1081/ceh-120030234|s2cid=24639038}}</ref> sleeping habits,<ref name="ExerciseSleepHabits"/> [[immune system]] function,<ref name=ExerciseImmune>{{cite journal|last=Nieman|first=DC|title=Exercise, infection, and immunity.|journal=International Journal of Sports Medicine|date=October 1994|volume=15 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=S131–41|pmid=7883395|doi=10.1055/s-2007-1021128|s2cid=6381722 }}</ref> and [[body composition]].<ref name=Zorba2011>{{cite journal|last=Zorba|first=E|author2=Cengiz, T |author3=Karacabey, K |title=Exercise training improves body composition, blood lipid profile and serum insulin levels in obese children.|journal=The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness|date=December 2011|volume=51|issue=4|pages=664–9|pmid=22212270}}</ref>

The study of the physiological responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as [[exercise physiology]], which is an important area of research within kinesiology.

=== Neuroplasticity ===
{{Main|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise}}
[[File:Brain neuroplasticity after practice.png|upright=1.35|thumb|Adaptive plasticity along with practice in three levels. In behavior level, performance (e.g., successful rate, accuracy) improved after practice.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marston|first=A|title=Self-reinforcement and external reinforcement in visual-motor learning.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|date=May 1967|volume=74|issue=1|pages=93–8|pmid=6032584|doi=10.1037/h0024505}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Marchant|first=David C.|author2=Clough, Peter J. |author3=Crawshaw, Martin |author4= Levy, Andrew |title=Novice motor skill performance and task experience is influenced by attentional focusing instructions and instruction preferences|journal=International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology|date=January 2009|volume=7|issue=4|pages=488–502|doi=10.1080/1612197X.2009.9671921|s2cid=143999808}}</ref> In cortical level, motor representation areas of the acting muscles enlarged; functional connectivity between primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) is strengthened.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Yoo|first=Kwangsun|author2=Sohn, William S. |author3=Jeong, Yong |title=Tool-use practice induces changes in intrinsic functional connectivity of parietal areas|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|year=2013|volume=7|pages=49|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2013.00049 |pmid=23550165 |pmc=3582314|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Dayan 2011 443–454">{{cite journal|last=Dayan|first=Eran|author2=Cohen, Leonardo G. |title=Neuroplasticity Subserving Motor Skill Learning|journal=Neuron|date=November 2011|volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=443–454|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2011.10.008|pmid=22078504|pmc=3217208}}</ref><ref name="Nudo science">{{cite journal|last=Nudo|first=RJ|author2=Wise, BM |author3=SiFuentes, F |author4= Milliken, GW |title=Neural substrates for the effects of rehabilitative training on motor recovery after ischemic infarct|journal=Science|date=Jun 21, 1996|volume=272|issue=5269|pages=1791–4 |pmid=8650578|doi=10.1126/science.272.5269.1791 |bibcode=1996Sci...272.1791N|s2cid=2423804}}</ref><ref name="Nudo 1996 monkey">{{cite journal|last=Nudo|first=RJ|author2=Milliken, GW |title=Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|date=May 1996|volume=75|issue=5|pages=2144–9|pmid=8734610|doi=10.1152/jn.1996.75.5.2144}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Pascual-Leone|first=A|author2=Nguyet, D |author3=Cohen, LG |author4=Brasil-Neto, JP |author5=Cammarota, A |author6= Hallett, M |title=Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills.|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |date=September 1995|volume=74|issue=3|pages=1037–45|pmid=7500130|doi=10.1152/jn.1995.74.3.1037}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Liepert|first=J|author2=Terborg, C |author3=Weiller, C |title=Motor plasticity induced by synchronized thumb and foot movements.|journal=Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale|date=April 1999|volume=125|issue=4|pages=435–9|pmid=10323289|doi=10.1007/s002210050700|s2cid=24980671}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eickhoff|first=SB|author2=Dafotakis, M |author3=Grefkes, C |author4=Shah, NJ |author5=Zilles, K |author6= Piza-Katzer, H |title=Central adaptation following heterotopic hand replantation probed by fMRI and effective connectivity analysis.|journal=Experimental Neurology|date=July 2008|volume=212|issue=1|pages=132–44|pmid=18501895|doi=10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.03.025|s2cid=20877634}}</ref> In neuronal level, the number of dendrites and neurotransmitter increase with practice.<ref name="Dayan 2011 443–454"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Johansson|first=B. B.|title=Brain Plasticity and Stroke Rehabilitation: The Willis Lecture|journal=Stroke|date=1 January 2000 |volume=31|issue=1|pages=223–230|doi=10.1161/01.STR.31.1.223|pmid=10625741|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gomez-Pinilla|first=F.|title=Voluntary Exercise Induces a BDNF-Mediated Mechanism That Promotes Neuroplasticity |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|date=1 November 2002|volume=88|issue=5|pages=2187–2195|doi=10.1152/jn.00152.2002|pmid=12424260|citeseerx=10.1.1.408.4718}}</ref>]]

[[Neuroplasticity]] is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement and changes in the brain are related. The human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ackerman |first1=Courtney E. |title=What is Neuroplasticity? A Psychologist Explains [+14 Exercises] |url=https://positivepsychology.com/neuroplasticity/ |website=PositivePsychology.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |date=25 July 2018}}</ref> The brain can be exposed to new stimuli and experiences and therefore learn from them and create new neural pathways hence leading to brain adaptation. These new adaptations and skills include both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes.

'''Adaptive plasticity'''

Recent{{When|date=January 2024}} empirical evidence indicates the significant impact of [[physical activity]] on brain function; for example, greater amounts of physical activity are associated with enhanced cognitive function in older adults.<ref name=sussessfulaging>{{cite journal|last=Mora|first=F|title=Successful brain aging: plasticity, environmental enrichment, and lifestyle|journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|date=March 2013|volume=15|issue=1|pages=45–52 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2013.15.1/fmora|pmid=23576888|pmc=3622468}}</ref> The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher [[gray matter]] density and [[white matter]] integrity after exercise training,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hopkins|first=ME|author2=Bucci, DJ |title=BDNF expression in perirhinal cortex is associated with exercise-induced improvement in object recognition memory.|journal=Neurobiology of Learning and Memory|date=September 2010 |volume=94|issue=2|pages=278–84|pmid=20601027|doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2010.06.006|pmc=2930914}}</ref><ref name=structure>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=C|author2=Baker, CI |title=Teaching an adult brain new tricks: a critical review of evidence for training-dependent structural plasticity in humans.|journal=NeuroImage|date=June 2013|volume=73|pages=225–36|pmid=22484409|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.03.069|s2cid=2080124}}</ref> and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in [[prefrontal cortex]] and [[hippocampus]].<ref name=specific>{{cite journal|last=Erickson|first=KI|author2=Weinstein, AM |author3=Lopez, OL |title=Physical activity, brain plasticity, and Alzheimer's disease |journal=Archives of Medical Research|date=November 2012|volume=43|issue=8|pages=615–21|pmid=23085449|doi=10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.09.008|pmc=3567914}}</ref> Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after long-term training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex and white matter integrity in the internal capsule compared to non-musicians.<ref name=DTI>{{cite journal |last=Han|first=Y |author2=Yang, H |author3=Lv, YT |author4=Zhu, CZ |author5=He, Y |author6=Tang, HH |author7=Gong, QY |author8=Luo, YJ |author9=Zang, YF |author10= Dong, Q |title=Gray matter density and white matter integrity in pianists' brain: a combined structural and diffusion tensor MRI study.|journal=Neuroscience Letters|date=Jul 31, 2009|volume=459|issue=1|pages=3–6|pmid=18672026|doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2008.07.056|s2cid=16115661 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=PANTEV|first=C |author2=ENGELIEN, A |author3=CANDIA, V |author4=ELBERT, T |title=Representational Cortex in Musicians|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|date=25 January 2006|volume=930 |issue=1|pages=300–314 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05740.x|bibcode=2001NYASA.930..300P|s2cid=11249292 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

'''Maladaptive plasticity'''

Maladaptive plasticity is defined as neuroplasticity with negative effects or detrimental consequences in behavior.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Cramer SC, Sur M, Dobkin BH, O'Brien C, Sanger TD, Trojanowski JQ, Rumsey JM, Hicks R, Cameron J, Chen D, Chen WG, Cohen LG, deCharms C, Duffy CJ, Eden GF, Fetz EE, Filart R, Freund M, Grant SJ, Haber S, Kalivas PW, Kolb B, Kramer AF, Lynch M, Mayberg HS, McQuillen PS, Nitkin R, Pascual-Leone A, Reuter-Lorenz P, Schiff N, Sharma A, Shekim L, Stryker M, Sullivan EV, Vinogradov S |title=Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications|journal=Brain|date=June 2011|volume=134|issue=Pt 6|pages=1591–609 |pmid=21482550 |pmc=3102236 |doi=10.1093/brain/awr039}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Nahum|first=A|author2=Sznajder, JI |author3=Solway, J |author4=Wood, LD |author5= Schumacker, PT |title=Pressure, flow, and density relationships in airway models during constant-flow ventilation.|journal=Journal of Applied Physiology|date=May 1988|volume=64|issue=5|pages=2066–73|pmid=3391905 |doi=10.1152/jappl.1988.64.5.2066}}</ref> Movement abnormalities may occur among individuals with and without brain injuries due to abnormal remodeling in central nervous system.<ref name="Nudo 1996 monkey"/><ref name="dystonia in pianists">{{cite journal|last=Kadota|first=H|author2=Nakajima, Y |author3=Miyazaki, M |author4=Sekiguchi, H |author5=Kohno, Y |author6=Amako, M |author7=Arino, H |author8=Nemoto, K |author9= Sakai, N |title=An fMRI study of musicians with focal dystonia during tapping tasks.|journal=Journal of Neurology|date=July 2010 |volume=257|issue=7|pages=1092–8|pmid=20143109|doi=10.1007/s00415-010-5468-9|s2cid=33252039}}</ref> [[Learned non-use]] is an example commonly seen among patients with brain damage, such as stroke. Patients with stroke learned to suppress [[paresis|paretic]] limb movement after unsuccessful experience in paretic hand use; this may cause decreased neuronal activation at adjacent areas of the infarcted motor cortex.<ref name="Taub 1994 learned nonuse">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taub E, Crago JE, Burgio LD, Groomes TE, Cook EW, DeLuca SC, Miller NE|title=An operant approach to rehabilitation medicine: overcoming learned nonuse by shaping|journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |date=March 1994|volume=61|issue=2|pages=281–93|pmid=8169577|pmc=1334416|doi=10.1901/jeab.1994.61-281}}</ref><ref name="Jones learned nonuse 2013">{{cite journal|vauthors=Jones TA, Allred RP, Jefferson SC, Kerr AL, Woodie DA, Cheng SY, Adkins DL |title=Motor system plasticity in stroke models: intrinsically use-dependent, unreliably useful|journal=Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation|date=June 2013|volume=44|issue=6 Suppl 1|pages=S104–6 |pmid=23709698 |pmc=3727618|doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.000037}}</ref>

There are many types of [[Neuroplasticity#Treatment of brain damage|therapies]] that are designed to overcome maladaptive plasticity in clinic and research, such as [[constraint-induced movement therapy]] (CIMT), body weight support treadmill training (BWSTT) and [[virtual reality therapy]]. These interventions are shown to enhance motor function in paretic limbs<ref>{{cite journal|last=Macko|first=RF|author2=Smith, GV |author3=Dobrovolny, CL |author4=Sorkin, JD |author5=Goldberg, AP |author6= Silver, KH |title=Treadmill training improves fitness reserve in chronic stroke patients.|journal=Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|date=July 2001|volume=82|issue=7|pages=879–84|pmid=11441372|doi=10.1053/apmr.2001.23853|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.8681}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wolf|first=SL|author2=Winstein, CJ |author3=Miller, JP |author4=Taub, E |author5=Uswatte, G |author6=Morris, D |author7=Giuliani, C |author8=Light, KE |author9=Nichols-Larsen, D |author10= EXCITE, Investigators |title=Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|date=Nov 1, 2006|volume=296|issue=17|pages=2095–104|pmid=17077374|doi=10.1001/jama.296.17.2095|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Turolla|first=A|author2=Dam, M |author3=Ventura, L |author4=Tonin, P |author5=Agostini, M |author6=Zucconi, C |author7=Kiper, P |author8=Cagnin, A |author9= Piron, L |title=Virtual reality for the rehabilitation of the upper limb motor function after stroke: a prospective controlled trial|journal=Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation|date=Aug 1, 2013|volume=10|pages=85|pmid=23914733|pmc=3734026|doi=10.1186/1743-0003-10-85|doi-access=free}}</ref> and stimulate cortical reorganization<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Orihuela-Espina F, Fernández del Castillo I, Palafox L, Pasaye E, Sánchez-Villavicencio I, Leder R, Franco JH, Sucar LE |title=Neural reorganization accompanying upper limb motor rehabilitation from stroke with virtual reality-based gesture therapy.|journal=Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation|date=May–Jun 2013|volume=20|issue=3|pages=197–209|pmid=23841967|doi=10.1310/tsr2003-197|hdl=10044/1/32069|s2cid=23333840|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Szaflarski|first=JP|author2=Page, SJ |author3=Kissela, BM |author4=Lee, JH |author5=Levine, P |author6= Strakowski, SM |title=Cortical reorganization following modified constraint-induced movement therapy: a study of 4 patients with chronic stroke.|journal=Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|date=August 2006|volume=87|issue=8|pages=1052–8|pmid=16876549|doi=10.1016/j.apmr.2006.04.018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=YR|author2=Chen, IH |author3=Liao, KK |author4=Huang, CC |author5= Wang, RY |title=Cortical reorganization induced by body weight-supported treadmill training in patients with hemiparesis of different stroke durations.|journal=Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation|date=April 2010|volume=91|issue=4|pages=513–8|pmid=20382280|doi=10.1016/j.apmr.2009.11.021}}</ref> in patients with brain damage.

=== Motor redundancy ===
[[File:Motor Redundancy Animation.gif|upright=1.35|thumb|left|Animation illustrating the concept of motor redundancy: the motor action of bringing the finger in contact with a point in space can be achieved using a wide variety of limb configurations.]]

Motor redundancy is a widely used concept in kinesiology and [[motor control]] which states that, for any task the human body can perform, there are effectively an unlimited number of ways the nervous system could achieve that task.<ref name=Bernstein1967>{{cite book|last=Bernstein|first=Nikolai|title=The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movement| year=1967|publisher=Permagon Press|location=Long Island City, NY|pages=196}}</ref> This redundancy appears at multiple levels in the chain of motor execution:

* [[kinematics|Kinematic]] redundancy means that for a desired location of the endpoint (e.g. the hand or finger), there are many configurations of the joints that would produce the same endpoint location in space.
* [[Muscle]] redundancy means that the same net joint [[torque]] could be generated by many different relative contributions of individual muscles.
* [[Motor unit]] redundancy means that for the same net muscle [[force]] could be generated by many different relative contributions of motor units within that muscle.

The concept of motor redundancy is explored in numerous studies,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Latash|first=ML|author2=Scholz, JP |author3=Schöner, G |title=Motor control strategies revealed in the structure of motor variability |journal=Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews|date=January 2002|volume=30|issue=1|pages=26–31|pmid=11800496|doi=10.1097/00003677-200201000-00006 |s2cid=5761936|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Tresch|first=MC|author2=Jarc, A |title=The case for and against muscle synergies.|journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology|date=December 2009|volume=19|issue=6|pages=601–7|pmid=19828310 |pmc=2818278 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2009.09.002}}</ref><ref name=todorov2002>{{cite journal|last=Todorov|first=E|author2=Jordan, MI |title=Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination.|journal=Nature Neuroscience |date=November 2002|volume=5|issue=11|pages=1226–35|pmid=12404008|doi=10.1038/nn963|s2cid=205441511}}</ref> usually with the goal of describing the relative contribution of a set of motor elements (e.g. muscles) in various human movements, and how these contributions can be predicted from a comprehensive theory. Two distinct (but not incompatible) theories have emerged for how the nervous system coordinates redundant elements: '''simplification''' and '''optimization'''. In the simplification theory, complex movements and muscle actions are constructed from simpler ones, often known as primitives or synergies, resulting in a simpler system for the brain to control.<ref>{{cite journal |last=d'Avella |first=A |author2=Saltiel, P |author3=Bizzi, E |title=Combinations of muscle synergies in the construction of a natural motor behavior.|journal=Nature Neuroscience|date=March 2003|volume=6|issue=3|pages=300–8 |pmid=12563264 |doi=10.1038/nn1010|s2cid=2437859 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mussa-Ivaldi|first=FA|author2=Giszter, SF |author3=Bizzi, E |title=Linear combinations of primitives in vertebrate motor control|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=Aug 2, 1994|volume=91|issue=16|pages=7534–8|pmid=8052615|doi=10.1073/pnas.91.16.7534|bibcode=1994PNAS...91.7534M|pmc=44436|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the optimization theory, motor actions arise from the minimization of a control parameter,<ref name=todorov2002 /> such as the energetic cost of movement or errors in movement performance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Harris|first=CM|author2=Wolpert, DM |title=Signal-dependent noise determines motor planning|journal=Nature|date=Aug 20, 1998 |volume=394|issue=6695|pages=780–4|pmid=9723616|doi=10.1038/29528|bibcode=1998Natur.394..780H|s2cid=4429717}}</ref>

== Scope of practice ==
In Canada, kinesiology is a professional designation as well as an area of study.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oka.on.ca/ |title=Welcome to the Ontario Kinesiology Association |publisher=Oka.on.ca |access-date=2009-07-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924214553/http://www.oka.on.ca/ |archive-date=2008-09-24 }}</ref> In the province of Ontario the scope has been officially defined as, "the assessment of human movement and performance and its rehabilitation and management to maintain, rehabilitate or enhance movement and performance"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_07k10_e.htm|title=Law Document English View|date=24 July 2014|website=gov.on.ca|access-date=27 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403094418/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_07k10_e.htm|archive-date=3 April 2015}}</ref>

Kinesiologists work in a variety of roles as health professionals. They work as rehabilitation providers in hospitals, clinics and private settings working with populations needing care for musculoskeletal, cardiac and neurological conditions. They provide rehabilitation to persons injured at work and in vehicular accidents. Kinesiologists also work as functional assessment specialists, exercise therapists, ergonomists, return to work specialists, case managers and medical legal evaluators. They can be found in hospital, long-term care, clinic, work, and community settings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hprac.org/en/reports/resources/New_Directions_April_2006_EN.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-06-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628061020/http://www.hprac.org/en/reports/resources/New_Directions_April_2006_EN.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-28 }}</ref> Additionally, kinesiology is applied in areas of health and fitness for all levels of athletes, but more often found with training of elite athletes.

== Licensing and regulation ==
=== Canada ===
In Canada, kinesiology has been designated a regulated health profession in [[Ontario]].<ref name="hoffman">{{cite book|last=Hoffman|first=S. J.|title=Introduction to Kinesiology|editor=Shirl J. Hoffman|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2008|edition=3|isbn= 9780736076135|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cBPOgAlarKcC}}</ref> Kinesiology was granted the right to regulate in the province of Ontario in the summer of 2007<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_07k10_e.htm |title=Kinesiology Act, 2007, S.O. 2007, c. 10, Sched. O |publisher=E-laws.gov.on.ca |date=2007-06-04 |access-date=2009-07-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611140510/http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_07k10_e.htm |archive-date=2009-06-11 }}</ref> and similar proposals have been made for other provinces. The College of Kinesiologists of Ontario achieved proclamation on April 1, 2013, at which time the professional title "Kinesiologist" became protected by law. In Ontario only members of the college may call themselves a Registered Kinesiologist. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology.php |title=CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie |publisher=Cka.ca |access-date=2009-07-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318005051/http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology.php |archive-date=2009-03-18}}</ref> They also work in cardiac rehabilitation, health and safety, hospital and long-term care facilities and community health centers just to name a few.

== Health service ==
[[File:Muybridge human male walking animated.gif|upright|thumb|The analysis of recorded human movement, as pioneered by [[Eadweard Muybridge]], figures prominently in kinesiology.]]

* Health promotion
: Kinesiologists working in the health promotion industry work with individuals to enhance the health, fitness, and well-being of the individual. Kinesiologists can be found working in fitness facilities, personal training/corporate wellness facilities, and industry.
* Clinical/rehabilitation
: Kinesiologists work with individuals with disabling conditions to assist in regaining their optimal physical function. They work with individuals in their home, fitness facilities, rehabilitation clinics, and at the worksite. They also work alongside physiotherapists and occupational therapists.
* Ergonomics
: Kinesiologists work in industry to assess suitability of design of workstations and provide suggestions for modifications and assistive devices.
* Health and safety
: Kinesiologists are involved in consulting with industry to identify hazards and provide recommendations and solutions to optimize the health and safety of workers.
* Disability management/case coordination
: Kinesiologists recommend and provide a plan of action to return an injured individual to their optimal function in all aspects of life.
* Management/research/administration
: Kinesiologists frequently fulfill roles in all above areas, perform research, and manage businesses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology_kinesiologistservices.php |title=CKA - Canadian Kinesiology Alliance - Alliance Canadienne de Kinésiologie |publisher=Cka.ca |access-date=2009-07-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603193315/http://www.cka.ca/kinesiology_kinesiologistservices.php |archive-date=2009-06-03 }}</ref>
* Health education
: Kinesiologists working in health education teach people about behaviors that promote wellness. They develop and implement strategies to improve the health of individuals and communities. Community health workers collect data and discuss health concerns with members of specific populations or communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/health-educators.htm|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2016-17 Edition, Health Educators and Community Health Workers|date=20 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415210623/http://www.bls.gov/ooh/community-and-social-service/health-educators.htm|archive-date=15 April 2016}}</ref>
* Athletic training
: Kinesiologists working in athletic training work in cooperation with physicians. Athletic trainers strive to prevent athletes from suffering injuries, diagnose them if they have suffered an injury and apply the appropriate treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/athletic-trainers.htm|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2016-17 Edition, Athletic Trainers|date=20 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419220312/http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/athletic-trainers.htm|archive-date=19 April 2016}}</ref>
* Athletic coaches and scouts
: Kinesiologists who pursue a career as an athletic coach develop new talent and guide an athlete's progress in a specific sport. They teach amateur or professional athletes the skills they need to succeed at their sport. Many coaches are also involved in scouting. Scouts look for new players and evaluate their skills and likelihood for success at the college, amateur, or professional level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/ooh/entertainment-and-sports/coaches-and-scouts.htm|title=Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2016-17 Edition, Coaches and Scouts|date=20 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160419212744/http://www.bls.gov/ooh/entertainment-and-sports/coaches-and-scouts.htm|archive-date=19 April 2016}}</ref>
* Physical education teacher
: Kinesiologists working as physical education teachers are responsible for teaching fitness, sports and health. They help students stay both mentally and physically fit by teaching them to make healthy choices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/teaching-careers/physical-education-teacher/|title=Concordia Online Education, Physical Education Teacher: Job and Salary, Information for P.E. Teachers|publisher=teaching careers, 2016|date=20 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505120451/http://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/teaching-careers/physical-education-teacher/|archive-date=5 May 2016}}</ref>
:* Physical therapy
:Kinesiologists working in physical therapy diagnose physical abnormalities, restore mobility to the client, and promote proper function of joints.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-03-08|title=Physical therapy: Who can benefit and how can it help?|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/160645|access-date=2021-10-11|website=www.medicalnewstoday.com|language=en}}</ref>

== History of kinesiology ==
[[File:NilsPosse.png|upright=2.15|thumb|In 1886, Swedish baron Nils Posse (1862-1895) introduced the term Kinesiology in the US, 1894 he wrote the book "The Special Kinesiology of Educational Gymnastics". Nils Posse was a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm, Sweden and founder of the Posse Gymnasium, Boston, MA.]]

[[Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics]] ([[:sv:Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan|sv]]) G.C.I. was founded 1813 in Stockholm, Sweden by [[Pehr Henrik Ling]]. It was the first [[Physiotherapy]] school in the world, training hundreds of medical gymnasts who spread the Swedish physical therapy around the entire world.
In 1887, Sweden was the first country in the world to give a national state licence to physiotherapists/physical therapists.<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last=Ottosson|first=Anders|date=2010 |title=The First Historical Movements of Kinesiology: Scientification in the Borderline between Physical Culture and Medicine around 1850|journal=The International Journal of the History of Sport |volume=27 |issue=11 |pages=1892–1919 |doi=10.1080/09523367.2010.491618 |pmid=20653114|s2cid=205633105}}</ref>

The Swedish medical gymnast and [[kinesiologist]] [[Carl August Georgii]] ([[:sv:August Georgii|sv]]), Professor at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute GCI in Stockholm, was the one who created and coined the new international word '''Kinesiology''' in 1854.<ref name="auto"/><br>
The term ''Kinesiology'' is a literal translation to Greek+English from the original Swedish word ''Rörelselära'', meaning "Movement Science". It was the foundation of the Medical Gymnastics, the original [[Physiotherapy]] and [[Physical Therapy]], developed for over 100 years in Sweden (starting 1813).<ref name="auto"/>

The new medical therapy created in Sweden was originally called [[Rörelselära]] ([[:sv:Rörelselära|sv]]), and later in 1854 translated to the new and invented international word "Kinesiology". The Kinesiology consisted of nearly 2,000 physical movements and 50 different types of massage therapy techniques.
They were all used to affect various dysfunctions and even illnesses, not only in the movement apparatus, but also into the internal physiology of man.
Thus, the original classical and Traditional Kinesiology was not only a system of rehabilitation for the body, or biomechanics like in modern Academic Kinesiology, but also a new therapy for relieving and curing diseases, by affecting the autonomic nervous system, organs and glands in the body.,<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Sjukgymnasten - vart tog han vägen? En undersökning av sjukgymnastyrkets maskulinisering och avmaskulinisering 1813-1934|last=Ottosson|first=Anders|publisher=Doctoral Theses from University of Gothenburg|year=2007|isbn=978-91-88614-56-8|location=Gothenburg Sweden, Göteborg Sverige}}</ref>

In 1886, the Swedish Medical Gymnast [[Nils Posse]] (1862-1895) introduced the term kinesiology in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/NASSH_Proceedings/NP2005/np2005zq.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-11-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911234740/http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/NASSH_Proceedings/NP2005/np2005zq.pdf |archive-date=2016-09-11 }}</ref> Nils Posse was a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm, Sweden and founder of the Posse Gymnasium in Boston, MA. He was teaching at [[Boston Normal School of Gymnastics]] BNSG.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kinesiology.com/image/NilsPosse.png |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-11-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107034519/http://kinesiology.com/image/NilsPosse.png |archive-date=2017-11-07 }}</ref>
''The Special Kinesiology Of Educational Gymnastics'' was the first book ever written in the world with the word "Kinesiology" in the title of the book. It was written by Nils Posse and published in Boston, 1894–1895.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kinesiology.com/|title=Kinesiology.com - manual muscle testing MMT|first=Mac Pompeius Wolontis|last=www.Kinesiology.com|website=kinesiology.com|access-date=27 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107072051/http://www.kinesiology.com/|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref> Posse was elected posthumously as an Honorary Fellow in Memoriam in the National Academy of Kinesiology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardinal |first1=Bradley J. |title=Missing Honorary Fellow in Memoriam found: The Baron Nils Posse, 1862–1895 |journal=National Academy of Kinesiology Newsletter |date=2022 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=0–11 |url=https://nationalacademyofkinesiology.org/Content/Documents/spring_2022_newsletter.pdf}}</ref>

The National Academy of Kinesiology was formally founded in 1930 in the United States. The academy's dual purpose is to encourage and promote the study and educational applications of the art and science of human movement and physical activity and to honor by election to its membership persons who have directly or indirectly contributed significantly to the study of and/or application of the art and science of human movement and physical activity. Membership in the National Academy of Kinesiology is by election and those elected are known as Fellows. Fellows are elected from around the world. Election into the National Academy of Kinesiology is considered a pinnacle achievement and recognition with the discipline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardinal |first1=Bradley J. |title=The National Academy of Kinesiology: Its founding, focus, and future |journal=Kinesiology Review |date=2022 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6–25 |doi=10.1123/kr.2021-0064}}</ref> For further information see: http://nationalacademyofkinesiology.org

== Technology in kinesiology ==
[[Motion capture]] technology has application in measuring human movement, and thus kinesiology. Historically, motion capture labs have recorded high fidelity data. While accurate and credible, these systems can come at high capital and operational costs. Modern-day systems have increased accessibility to mocap technology.

== Adapted physical activity ==
Adapted physical activity (APA) is a branch of kinesiology, referring to physical activity that is modified or designed to meet the needs of individuals with disabilities.<ref name=" University of Alberta ">{{cite web | title=Adapted Physical Activity - Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation | website= University of Alberta | url=https://www.ualberta.ca/kinesiology-sport-recreation/research/areas-of-research/adapted-physical-activity.html#:~:text=What%20is%20Adapted%20Physical%20Activity,participation%20restrictions%20in%20physical%20activity. | ref={{sfnref | University of Alberta }} | access-date=May 14, 2023}}</ref> The term originated in the field of physical education and is commonly used in the field of physical education and rehabilitation to refer to physical activities and exercises that have been modified or adapted for individuals with disabilities. These activities are often led by trained professionals, such as adapted physical educators, occupational therapists, or physical therapists.<ref name="IFAPA 2014">{{cite web | title=What is APA | website=IFAPA | date=May 25, 2014 | url=https://ifapa.net/what-is-apa/ | access-date=May 14, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Finland">{{cite web | title=Adapted Physical Activity | website=Liikuntatieteellinen tiedekunta - Jyväskylän yliopisto | date=April 5, 2018 | url=https://www.jyu.fi/sport/en/adapted-physical-activity/adapted-physical-activity | access-date=May 14, 2023}}</ref>

In 1973 the Federation Internationale de lʼ Activite Physique Adaptee (International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - IFAPA) was formed and is described as a discipline/profession that purpose to facilitates physical activity across people with a wide range of individual differences, emphasizing in empowerment, self-determination and opportunities access.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silva |first1=Carla Filomena |last2=Howe |first2=P. David |date=1 January 2012 |title=Difference, Adapted Physical Activity and Human Development: Potential Contribution of Capabilities Approach |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.29.1.25 |journal=Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=25–43 |doi=10.1123/apaq.29.1.25 |pmid=22190052}}</ref><ref name="DePauw">{{cite journal |last1=DePauw |first1=Karen P. |last2=Doll-Tepper |first2=Gudrun M. |date=1 April 1989 |title=European Perspectives on Adapted Physical Activity |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.6.2.95 |journal=Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=95–99 |doi=10.1123/apaq.6.2.95}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hutzler |first1=Yeshayahu |last2=Sherrill |first2=Claudine |date=January 2007 |title=Hutzler & Sherrill, 2007 |url=https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/apaq/24/1/article-p1.xml |journal=Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1123/apaq.24.1.1 |pmid=17703059 |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref>

A common definition of APA is "a cross-disciplinary body of practical and theoretical knowledge directed toward impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions in physical activity. It is a service delivery profession and an academic field of study that supports an attitude of acceptance of individual differences, advocates access to active lifestyles and sport, and promotes innovative and cooperative service delivery, supports, and empowerment. Adapted physical activity includes, but is not limited to, physical education, sport, recreation, dance, creative arts, nutrition, medicine, and rehabilitation."<ref>{{cite web |title=IFAPA Definition |url=https://ifapa.net/definition/ |access-date=23 January 2021 |website=IFAPA}}</ref> This definition aligns with the [[World Health Organization]] International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health whereby disability is seen as the interaction between impairments or conditions with activity limitations, participation restrictions and contextual factors.<ref>{{cite web |title=WHO |url=https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/international-classification-of-functioning-disability-and-health |access-date=27 April 2021 |website=WHO}}</ref>

===Overview===
The term APA has evolved in the course of years, and in some countries could be recognized with alternative terms that contain a similar set of constructs, for example, sports for disabled people, sports therapy, and psychomotor therapy.<ref name="hutzler">{{cite journal |last1=Hutzler |first1=Yeshayahu |last2=Sherrill |first2=Claudine |title=Defining Adapted Physical Activity: International Perspectives |journal=Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly |date=1 January 2007 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1123/apaq.24.1.1 |pmid=17703059 |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.24.1.1}}</ref> The APA is considered as (i) activities or service delivery, (ii) a profession, and (iii) an academic field of study with a unique body of knowledge that differs from terms such as adapted physical education or para-sport.<ref name="REINA 2014" /> Principally, APA is an umbrella term that incorporates the mentioned terms considered sub-specializations (i.e., physical education, para-sports, recreation, and rehabilitation).<ref name="hutzler" />
APA is proposed to have close links between the field of practice and the field of study with unique theories and growing bodies of practical and scientific knowledge,<ref name="hutzler" /> where APA practitioners are those who provide the services and activities, while APA scholars generate and promote evidence-based research practices among practitioners.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hutzler |first1=Yeshayahu |last2=Hellerstein |first2=Devora |title=Adapted Versus Adaptive Physical Activity |journal=Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly |date=1 April 2016 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=109–112 |doi=10.1123/APAQ.2016-0027 |pmid=27078267 |url=https://doi.org/10.1123/APAQ.2016-0027}}</ref>

Adaptation to physical activity opportunities is most often provided in the form of appropriately designed and modified equipment (prosthesis, wheelchairs, mono-ski, ball size), task criteria (e.g., modifying skill quality criteria or using a different skill), instructions (e.g., using personal supports, peer tutors, non-verbal instructions, motivational strategies), physical and social environments (e.g., increasing or decreasing court dimensions; segregated vs. inclusive; type of training climate: mastery-oriented, collaborative or competitive social environment; degree of peer and parental support), and rules (e.g., double bounce rule in wheelchair tennis).<ref name="sherrill">{{cite book |last1=Sherrill |first1=C. |last2=Hutzler |first2=Y. |title=Adapted physical activity science. In Directory of sport science |date=2008 |pages=90–103 |edition=5th}}</ref>
In general, the APA presents various sub-specializations such as physical education (e.g., inclusion in physical education, attention to students with special needs, development of new education contents), sports (e.g., development of paralympic sports, activity by sports federations for athletes with disabilities), recreation (e.g., development of the inclusive sport approach and attitudes change programs), and rehabilitation (e.g., physical activity programs in rehabilitation centers, involvement of health-related professionals).<ref name="hutzler" /><ref name="REINA 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Reina |first1=R. |title=Adapted Physical Activity: The journey to Ithaca goes ahead |journal=RICYDE: Revista Internacional de Ciencias del Deporte |date=2014 |volume=10 |issue=37 |pages=281–284 |doi=10.5232/ricyde2014.037 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Adapted sport..jpg|thumb|alt=Two people (one in a wheelchair) in a practice of karate.|The image represents the practice activity in the field of Adapted Physical Activity (APA).]]
[[File:The image represents research activity in the field of Adapted Physical Activity (APA).jpg|thumb|The image represents research activity in the field of Adapted Physical Activity (APA)]]

The role of sports and physical activity participation in the population with disabilities has been recognized as a human right in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and declared in other international organization agreements such as:
* International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport (UNESCO).
* International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS).
* Marseille Declaration, Universal Fitness Innovation & Transformation - UFIT Launch October 2015. A Commitment to Inclusion by and for the Global Fitness Industry.
* Sustainable Development Goals, Sports and Physical Activity, United Nations (UN).
In this line, the APA as a discipline/profession plays an essential role in addressing the needs from a theoretical and practical framework to provide full participation access in physical activity to populations with disabilities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ginis |first1=Kathleen A. Martin |last2=Ploeg |first2=Hidde P. van der |last3=Foster |first3=Charlie |last4=Lai |first4=Byron |last5=McBride |first5=Christopher B. |last6=Ng |first6=Kwok |last7=Pratt |first7=Michael |last8=Shirazipour |first8=Celina H. |last9=Smith |first9=Brett |last10=Vásquez |first10=Priscilla M. |last11=Heath |first11=Gregory W. |title=Participation of people living with disabilities in physical activity: a global perspective |journal=The Lancet |date=31 July 2021 |volume=398 |issue=10298 |pages=443–455 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01164-8 |pmid=34302764 |s2cid=236165204 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

There are many educational programmes offered around the world that specialise in APA, including disability sports, adapted sports, rehabilitation, adapted physical education and parasport management. In Europe there is the European Diploma of Adapted Physical Activity<ref>{{cite web |title=EUDAPA |url=https://www.haaga-helia.fi/en/eudapa-european-university-diploma-adapted-physical-activity |website=Haaga Helia |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> for bachelor's degrees. At the master's degree level, there is the International Masters in Adapted Physical Activity<ref>{{cite web |title=IMAPA |url=https://faber.kuleuven.be/eng/education/IMAPA |website=KU Leuven |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> and the master's degree in Adapted Physical Activity offered by the [[Lithuanian Sports University]].<ref>{{cite web |title=MDAPA |url=https://www.lsu.lt/en/studies/study-programmes/masters-degree-studies/masters-degree-adapted-physical-activity/ |website=KU Leuven |date=28 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> A doctoral programme in adapted physical activity can be studied through the Multi-Institution Mentorship Consortium (MAMC).<ref>{{cite web |title=MAMC |url=https://mamc.info/about-2/ |website=MAMC |access-date=28 January 2021}}</ref> Furthermore, there is offered a Master of Adapted Physical Education in the North American region in Oregon State University (USA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Master of Adapted Physical Education |url=https://health.oregonstate.edu/mape |website=College of Public Health and Human Sciences |language=en |date=24 December 2018}}</ref> In the South American Region, the San Sebastian University (Chile) offers a Master of Physical Activity and Adapted Sports.<ref>{{cite web |title=MAGÍSTER EN ACTIVIDAD FÍSICA Y DEPORTE ADAPTADO {{!}} Uss postgrado |date=25 January 2018 |url=https://postgrados.uss.cl/programas/magister-en-actividad-fisica-y-deporte-adaptado/ |language=es}}</ref> The universities Viña del Mar<ref>{{cite web |last1=Universidad Viña del Mar (UVM) |title=Diplomado en Actividad Física y Deportes Adaptados a Personas en Situación de Discapacidad » Universidad Viña del Mar (UVM) |url=https://www.uvm.cl/postgrados/diplomado-actividad-fisica-deportes-adaptados-personas-situacion-discapacidad/ |website=Universidad Viña del Mar (UVM) |language=es}}</ref> and UMCE<ref>{{cite web |title=Diplomado en Actividad física, deporte e inclusión |url=https://econtinua.umce.cl/index.php/es/programas/diplomados/diplomado-en-actividad-fisica-deporte-e-inclusion |website=econtinua |language=es-co}}</ref> in Chile offers a specialization in adapted physical activity.

=== International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity ===
The International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) is an international scientific organization of higher education scholars, practitioners and students dedicated to promoting APA.<ref>{{cite web |title=about IFAPA |url=https://ifapa.net/about-ifapa/ |website=IFAPA |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> IFAPA was founded in 1973 in Quebec, Canada, presenting an original purpose declared "to give global focus to professionals who use adapted physical activities for instruction, recreation, remediation, and research". From these initial times, IFAPA evolved from a small organization to an international corporation with active regional federations in different world regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reid |first1=G. |title=The International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity: Historical Perspectives Part 2 |journal=Palaestra |date=2016 |volume=30 |issue=1}}</ref>

The current purpose of IFAPA are:<ref>{{cite web |title=About IFAPA |url=https://ifapa.net/about-ifapa/ |website=IFAPA}}</ref>
* To encourage international cooperation in the field of physical activity to the benefit of individuals of all abilities,
* to promote, stimulate and support research in the field of adapted physical activity throughout the world,
* and to make scientific knowledge of and practical experiences in adapted physical activity available to all interested persons, organizations and institutions.
IFAPA coordinates national, regional, and international functions (both governmental and nongovernmental) that pertain to sport, dance, aquatics, exercise, fitness, and wellness for individuals of all ages with disabilities or special needs. IFAPA is linked with several other international governing bodies, including the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), Special Olympics International and the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE). English is the language used for IFAPA correspondence, conferences. Professor David Legg from [[Mount Royal University]] is the current President of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA) since 2019 at the International Symposium of Adapted Physical Activity (ISAPA) hosted by IFAPA Past President Martin Block at the [[University of Virginia]]. [[File:Professor David Legg current President of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA).jpg|thumb|Professor David Legg current President of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA)]]
The biennial ISAPA scheduled for 2021 was planned to be held at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland.<ref>{{cite web |title=ISAPA 2021 goes to Finland |url=https://ifapa.net/isapa-2021-in-finland/ |website=IFAPA |date=6 July 2018 |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] it was later announced to be held online only,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ifapa.net/isapa-2021-announcement/|title=ISAPA 2021 Goes Online|date=2 November 2020}}</ref> making it the first Online ISAPA since the first one in 1977.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ifapa.net/|title=Symposia|website=IFAPA}}</ref> The 2023 ISAPA was awarded to a multi-site organisation by Halberg Foundation in New Zealand and Mooven in France.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ifapa.net/new-zealand-and-france-to-co-organize-the-international-symposium-on-adapted-physical-activity-july-2023/|title=New Zealand and Mooven to co-organize the International Symposium on Adapted Physical Activity July 2023|date=31 August 2020}}</ref>

==== Regions ====
* Africa - no formal organisation
* Asia - Asian society of adapted physical education - ASAPE<ref>http://www.asape.net/</ref>
* Europe - European Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - EUFAPA<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eufapa.eu/|title=European Federation of Adapted Physical Activity|website=European Federation of Adapted Physical Activity}}</ref>
* Middle East - Middle East Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - MEFAPA
* North America - North American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - NAFAPA<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nafapa.net/|title=ABOUT NAFAPA|website=nafapa}}</ref>
* Oceania - no formal organisation
* South and Central America - South American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity - SAPA<ref>https://fesafa.net/</ref>

=== Research and dissemination in adapted physical activity ===
[[File:European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity.jpg|thumb|European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity]]

Actually, it is possible to find numerous sports science journals with research papers on adapted sport, while those specific to APA are lesser. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly (APAQ) is the only AFA-specific journal indexed in the Journal Citation Reports Index, appearing in both the Sport Sciences and Rehabilitation directories, which is another example of its interdisciplinarity (Impact Score 2020-2021 = 2.61) (Pérez et al., 2012).<ref name="PEREZ">{{cite journal |last1=Pérez |first1=J. |last2=Reina |first2=R. |last3=Sanz |first3=D. |title=Adapted Physical Activity for people with disability in Spain: scientific perspectives and current issues |journal=CCD. Cultura_Ciencia_Deporte |date=2012 |volume=72 |issue=21 |pages=213–224 |doi=10.12800/ccd.v7i21.86 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, the European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity (EUJAPA) is another international, multidisciplinary journal introduced to communicate, share and stimulate academic inquiry focusing on APA of persons with disabilities, appearing in the Education directories of Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR).
Regarding the dissemination of scientific knowledge generated by the APA, the most relevant international events are described as follows:
* International Symposium of Adapted Physical Activity (ISAPA), organized by IFAPA on a biannual basis.
* Vista conference, organized by the International Paralympic Committee on a biannual basis.
* Paralympic Congress, organized by the International Paralympic Committee every four years.
* European Conference on Adapted Physical Activity (EUCAPA), organized by European Federation in Adapted Physical Activity on a biannual basis.
* North American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (NAFAPA) Conference, organized by NAFAPA on a biannual basis.
* South American Adapted Physical Activity Conference, organized by South American Federation of Adapted Physical Activity.

=== Adapted physical education ===
[[File:The image represents activities with students with disabilities associated to the Adapted Physical Education field.jpg|thumb|The image represents activities with students with disabilities associated to the Adapted Physical Education field]]
[[Adapted physical education]] is a sub-discipline of [[physical education]] with a focus on including students with disabilities into the subject.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |title=APE definition |url=https://ifapa.net/ape/ |access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref> APE is the term used to refer to the physical education for individuals with disabilities that occurs primarily in elementary and secondary schools.<ref name="DePauw"/> According to Dunn and Leitschuh<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunn |first1=J. |last2=Leitschuh |first2=C. |title=Special physical education |date=2010 |publisher=Kendall Hunt Publishing}}</ref> APE is defined as "Adapted physical education programs are those that have the same objectives as the regular physical education program but in which adjustments are made in the regular offerings to meet the needs and abilities of exceptional students". This education can be provided in separate educational settings as well as in general (regular) educational settings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=DePauw |first1=K. |title=Historical viewpoint in adapted physical education. In J. Haegele, S. Hodge, & D. R. Shapiro (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Adapted Physical Education |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group}}</ref> APE is oriented to educate students to lifelong engagement in physical activities and to live a healthy lifestyle offering possibilities to exploit movements, games, and sports and at the same time personal development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kirch |first1=Alina |last2=Schnitzius |first2=Melina |last3=Spengler |first3=Sarah |last4=Blaschke |first4=Simon |last5=Mess |first5=Filip |title=Knowing Students' Characteristics: Opportunities to Adapt Physical Education Teaching |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2021 |volume=12 |pages=31 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.619944 |pmid=33643149 |pmc=7907514 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Goals and objectives of adapted and general physical education might be the same with some minor differences. For example, learning to push a wheelchair or play wheelchair basketball might be a goal for a child with a spinal cord injury, while running and playing regular basketball is a goal for a child with a disability. In other cases, a child with a disability might focus on fewer objectives or modified objectives within a domain (e.g., physical fitness) compared to peers without disabilities.<ref name="auto1"/>

=== Parasport or disability sport ===
[[File:Para-archery athlete competing.jpg|thumb|Para-archery athlete competing]]
The APA in this field is oriented principally to the [[Parasports]] movement, which organises sports for and by people with disabilities. Examples of para-sports organizations include sports in the [[Paralympic Games]], [[Special Olympics]], [[Deaflympics]] as well as [[Invictus games]] to name a few. Many para-sports have eligibility criteria according to the characteristics of the participants. In the [[Paralympics Games]], this is known as sport classification, a system that provides a framework for determining who can and who cannot participate according to the impact of the impairments on the outcome of the competition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tweedy |first1=Sean M. |last2=Connick |first2=Mark J. |last3=Beckman |first3=Emma M. |title=Applying Scientific Principles to Enhance Paralympic Classification Now and in the Future: A Research Primer for Rehabilitation Specialists |journal=Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America |date=1 May 2018 |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=313–332 |doi=10.1016/j.pmr.2018.01.010 |pmid=29627091 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2018.01.010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paralympic.org/classification|title = IPC Classification - Paralympic Categories & Classifications}}</ref>

In the [[Special Olympics]] individuals eligible have to meet the following criteria
* be at least 8 years old
* have been identified by an agency or professional as having one of the following conditions: intellectual disabilities, cognitive delays (as measured by formal assessment), or significant learning or vocational problems due to cognitive delay that require specially designed instruction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.specialolympics.org/about/faq|title=Frequently Asked Questions|date=August 7, 2018|website=www.specialolympics.org}}</ref>
Another sporting competition for people with intellectual impairments is the Virtus Games (formerly known as [[International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disability]]. This is different from the Special Olympics. Eligibility is based on a master list of
* II 1 Intellectual Disability
* II 2 Significant Intectuall Disability
* II 3 Austism<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.virtus.sport/about-us/athlete-eligibility/eligibility-master-list|title = Eligibility Master List}}</ref>
To be eligible to compete at the [[Deaflympics]], athletes must have a hearing loss of at least 55 decibels in the better ear.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sportanddev.org/en/learn-more/disability/technical-considerations/eligibility-and-classification|title=Eligibility and classification &#124; sportanddev.org|website=www.sportanddev.org}}</ref>
The [[Invictus Games]] were designed to allow sport competitions between wounded, injured or sick servicemen and women (WIS).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://invictusgamesfoundation.org/frequently-asked-questions|title = Frequently asked questions – Invictus Games Foundation}}</ref> Therefore, only people in the military sectors can compete in the Invictus games.

=== Physical medicine and rehabiltiation ===
[[File:Adapted Physical Activity in the rehabilitation process of people with disabilities.jpg|thumb|Adapted Physical Activity in the rehabilitation process of people with disabilities]]

The results from APA can help the practice of [[Physical medicine and rehabilitation]], whereby the functional ability and quality of life is improved.<ref>{{cite web |title=EUSAPA | url=https://eusapa.upol.cz |website=EUSAPA |access-date = 23 January 2021}}</ref> Rehabilitation is helping the individual achieve the highest level of functioning, independence, participation, and quality of life possible. The APA and sport in rehabilitation for individuals with disabilities is particularly important and is associated with the legacy of the medical rehabilitation specialist Sir Ludwig Guttman who was the founder of the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation, the basis of the actual Paralympic movement.<ref name="rehab">{{cite journal |journal=International Encyclopedia of Rehabilitation |last1=Hutzler |first1=Y. |title=International Encyclopedia of Rehabilitation Adapted Physical Activity and Sport in Rehabilitation |date=2010}}</ref> APA and sports are strongly recommended in rehabilitation programs due to the positive impact and health benefits in people with different disabilities. The APA practitioner provides exercise and training regimens adapted for specific individual needs and works based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the World Health Organization, facilitating a common language with other rehabilitation professionals during the rehabilitation process.<ref name="rehab" />

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Adapted Physical Education]] (USA)
* [[Anatomical terms of motion]]
* [[Assistive technology in sport]]
* [[Disability]]
* [[Disabled sports]]
* [[Exercise physiology]]
* [[Human musculoskeletal system]]
* [[Kinanthropometry]]
* [[Kinesiogenomics]]
* [[Kinesiotherapy]]
* [[Mental practice of action]]
* [[Motor imagery]]
* [[Movement assessment]]
* [[Neurology]]
* [[Parasports]]
* [[Physical therapy]] (USA)
* [[Physiological movement]]
* [[Sports science]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*{{wiktionary-inline}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ergonomics]]
[[Category:Applied sciences]]
[[Category:Human physiology]]
[[Category:Motor control]]
[[Category:Exercise physiology]]