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{{short description|Intersection of nanotechnology and biology}}{{Nanotechnology}}

'''Nanobiotechnology''', '''bionanotechnology''', and '''nanobiology''' are terms that refer to the intersection of [[nanotechnology]] and [[biology]].<ref>Ehud Gazit, Plenty of room for biology at the bottom: An introduction to bionanotechnology. Imperial College Press, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-86094-677-6}}</ref> Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies.

This discipline helps to indicate the merger of biological research with various fields of nanotechnology.  Concepts that are enhanced through [[nanobiology]] include: [[nanodevice]]s (such as [[Molecular machine#Biological|biological machines]]), [[nanoparticle]]s, and nanoscale phenomena that occurs within the discipline of nanotechnology. This technical approach to biology allows scientists to imagine and create systems that can be used for biological research. Biologically inspired nanotechnology uses biological systems as the inspirations for technologies not yet created.<ref name="nanonow">{{cite web |url=http://www.nanotech-now.com/columns/?article=097 |title=Nanobiology |publisher=Nanotech-Now.com}}</ref> However, as with nanotechnology and [[biotechnology]], bionanotechnology does have many [[Impact of nanotechnology|potential ethical issues]] associated with it.
[[Image:Protein translation.gif|thumb|300px| A [[ribosome]] is a [[biological machine]].]]
The most important objectives that are frequently found in nanobiology involve applying nanotools to relevant medical/biological problems and refining these applications.  Developing new tools, such as [[peptoid nanosheet]]s, for medical and biological purposes is another primary objective in nanotechnology. New nanotools are often made by refining the applications of the nanotools that are already being used. The imaging of native [[biomolecule]]s, [[biological membrane]]s, and tissues is also a major topic for nanobiology researchers. Other topics concerning nanobiology include the use of [[cantilever]] array sensors and the application of [[nanophotonics]] for manipulating molecular processes in living cells.<ref name="swissnano">{{cite web |url=http://www.nanoscience.ch/nccr/research/module_01 |title=Nanobiology |publisher=Swiss Nanoscience Institute}}</ref>

Recently, the use of [[microorganisms]] to synthesize functional nanoparticles has been of great interest. Microorganisms can change the [[oxidation state]] of metals.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} These microbial processes have opened up new opportunities for us to explore novel applications, for example, the biosynthesis of metal nanomaterials. In contrast to chemical and physical methods, microbial processes for synthesizing nanomaterials can be achieved in aqueous phase under gentle and environmentally benign conditions. This approach has become an attractive focus in current green bionanotechnology research towards sustainable development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ng|first=CK|author2=Sivakumar K |author3=Liu X |author4=Madhaiyan M |author5=Ji L |author6=Yang L |author7=Tang C |author8=Song H |author9=Kjelleberg S |author10=Cao B. |title=Influence of outer membrane c-type cytochromes on particle size and activity of extracellular nanoparticles produced by Shewanella oneidensis.|journal=Biotechnology and Bioengineering|date=4 Feb 2013|doi=10.1002/bit.24856|pmid=23381725|volume=110 |issue=7 |pages=1831–7|s2cid=5903382}}</ref>

==Terminology==
The terms are often used interchangeably. When a distinction is intended, though, it is based on whether the focus is on applying biological ideas or on studying biology with nanotechnology. Bionanotechnology generally refers to the study of how the goals of nanotechnology can be guided by studying how biological "machines" work and adapting these biological motifs into improving existing nanotechnologies or creating new ones.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130705201405/http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Bionanotechnology Bionanotechnology - Definition], wordiQ.com</ref><ref name="Methods in Modern Biophysics">Nolting B, “Biophysical Nanotechnology”. In: “Methods in Modern Biophysics”, Springer, 2005, {{ISBN|3-540-27703-X}}</ref> Nanobiotechnology, on the other hand, refers to the ways that nanotechnology is used to create devices to study biological systems.<ref>[http://www.nbtc.cornell.edu/ NBTC Homepage | Nanobiotechnology Center<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

In other words, nanobiotechnology is essentially miniaturized [[biotechnology]], whereas bionanotechnology is a specific application of nanotechnology. For example, [[DNA nanotechnology]] or cellular engineering would be classified as bionanotechnology because they involve working with biomolecules on the nanoscale. Conversely, many new medical technologies involving [[nanoparticles]] as delivery systems or as sensors would be examples of nanobiotechnology since they involve using nanotechnology to advance the goals of biology.

The definitions enumerated above will be utilized whenever a distinction between nanobio and bionano is made in this article. However, given the overlapping usage of the terms in modern parlance, individual technologies may need to be evaluated to determine which term is more fitting. As such, they are best discussed in parallel.

==Concepts==
[[Image:Kinesin_walking.gif|thumb|300px| [[Kinesin]] walking on a [[microtubule]]. It is a molecular [[biological machine]] that uses [[protein dynamics#Global flexibility: multiple domains|protein domain dynamics]] on [[Nanoscopic scale|nanoscale]]s]]
Most of the scientific concepts in bionanotechnology are derived from other fields. Biochemical principles that are used to understand the material properties of biological systems are central in bionanotechnology because those same principles are to be used to create new technologies. Material properties and applications studied in bionanoscience include mechanical properties (e.g. deformation, adhesion, failure), electrical/electronic (e.g. electromechanical stimulation, [[capacitors]], energy storage/batteries), optical (e.g. absorption, [[luminescence]], [[photochemistry]]), thermal (e.g. thermomutability, thermal management), biological (e.g. how cells interact with nanomaterials, molecular flaws/defects, biosensing, biological mechanisms such as [[mechanosensation]]), nanoscience of disease (e.g. genetic disease, cancer, organ/tissue failure), as well as [[biological computing]] (e.g. [[DNA computing]]) and agriculture (target delivery of pesticides, hormones and fertilizers.<ref name="GarciaAnoveros">{{cite journal | last1 = GarciaAnoveros | first1 = J | last2 = Corey | first2 = DP | year = 1997 | title = The molecules of mechanosensation | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 20 | pages = 567–94 | doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.20.1.567| pmid = 9056725 }}</ref>
<ref name="pmid28285124">{{cite journal | vauthors =  Callaway DJ, Matsui T, Weiss T, Stingaciu LR, Stanley CB, Heller WT, Bu ZM| title = Controllable Activation of Nanoscale Dynamics in a Disordered Protein Alters Binding Kinetics | journal = Journal of Molecular Biology | volume = 427 | issue = 7  | pages = 987–998 | date = 7 April 2017 | pmid =  28285124 |  pmc = 5399307 | doi =  10.1016/j.jmb.2017.03.003  }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Langer|first1=Robert|title=Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering: From Discovery to Applications|pmc=2935937|pmid=20726522|doi=10.1021/nl102184c|volume=10|issue=9|journal=Nano Lett|pages=3223–30|bibcode=2010NanoL..10.3223S|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022|title=Nanobiotechnology approach using plant rooting hormone synthesized silver nanoparticle as "nanobullets" for the dynamic applications in horticulture – an in vitro and ex vitro study|journal=Arabian Journal of Chemistry|volume=11|pages=48–61|year=2018|last1=Thangavelu|first1=Raja Muthuramalingam|last2=Gunasekaran|first2=Dharanivasan|last3=Jesse|first3=Michael Immanuel|last4=s.u|first4=Mohammed Riyaz|last5=Sundarajan|first5=Deepan|last6=Krishnan|first6=Kathiravan|doi-access=free}}</ref> The impact of bionanoscience, achieved through structural and mechanistic analyses of biological processes at nanoscale, is their translation into synthetic and technological applications through nanotechnology.

Nanobiotechnology takes most of its fundamentals from nanotechnology.{{clarify|date=January 2020}} Most of the devices designed for nano-biotechnological use are directly based on other existing nanotechnologies.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} Nanobiotechnology is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated with [[biosensor]]s, particularly where [[photonics]], chemistry, biology, [[biophysics]], [[nanomedicine]], and engineering converge. Measurement in biology using wave guide techniques, such as [[dual-polarization interferometry]], is another example.

==Applications==
Applications of bionanotechnology are extremely widespread. Insofar as the distinction holds, nanobiotechnology is much more commonplace in that it simply provides more tools for the study of biology. Bionanotechnology, on the other hand, promises to recreate biological mechanisms and pathways in a form that is useful in other ways.

===Nanomedicine===
[[Nanomedicine]] is a field of medical science whose applications are increasing.

;Nanobots<!-- or nanomachines-->
The field includes [[nanorobots]] and [[Molecular machine#Biological|biological machines]], which constitute a very useful tool to develop this area of knowledge. In the past years, researchers have made many improvements in the different devices and systems required to develop functional nanorobots – such as motion and magnetic guidance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wavhale |first1=Ravindra D. |last2=Dhobale |first2=Kshama D. |last3=Rahane |first3=Chinmay S. |last4=Chate |first4=Govind P. |last5=Tawade |first5=Bhausaheb V. |last6=Patil |first6=Yuvraj N. |last7=Gawade |first7=Sandesh S. |last8=Banerjee |first8=Shashwat S. |title=Water-powered self-propelled magnetic nanobot for rapid and highly efficient capture of circulating tumor cells |journal=Communications Chemistry |date=18 November 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=159 |doi=10.1038/s42004-021-00598-9 |pmid=36697678 |pmc=9814645 |s2cid=244274928 |language=en |issn=2399-3669|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arvidsson |first1=Rickard |last2=Foss Hansen |first2=Steffen |title=Environmental and health risks of nanorobots: an early review |journal=Environmental Science: Nano |date=2020 |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=2875–2886 |doi=10.1039/D0EN00570C |s2cid=225154263 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref> This supposes a new way of treating and dealing with diseases such as cancer; thanks to nanorobots, side effects of chemotherapy could get controlled, reduced and even eliminated, so some years from now, cancer patients could be offered an alternative to treat such diseases instead of chemotherapy,{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} which causes secondary effects such as hair loss, fatigue or nausea killing not only cancerous cells but also the healthy ones. Nanobots could be used for various therapies, surgery, diagnosis, and medical imaging<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soto |first1=Fernando |last2=Wang |first2=Jie |last3=Ahmed |first3=Rajib |last4=Demirci |first4=Utkan |title=Medical Micro/Nanorobots in Precision Medicine |journal=Advanced Science |date=2020 |volume=7 |issue=21 |pages=2002203 |doi=10.1002/advs.202002203 |pmid=33173743 |pmc=7610261 |language=en |issn=2198-3844}}</ref> – such as via targeted drug-delivery to the brain (similar to [[Nanoparticles for drug delivery to the brain|nanoparticles]]) and other sites.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mair |first1=Lamar O. |last2=Adam |first2=Georges |last3=Chowdhury |first3=Sagar |last4=Davis |first4=Aaron |last5=Arifin |first5=Dian R. |last6=Vassoler |first6=Fair M. |last7=Engelhard |first7=Herbert H. |last8=Li |first8=Jinxing |last9=Tang |first9=Xinyao |last10=Weinberg |first10=Irving N. |last11=Evans |first11=Benjamin A. |last12=Bulte |first12=Jeff W.M. |last13=Cappelleri |first13=David J. |title=Soft Capsule Magnetic Millirobots for Region-Specific Drug Delivery in the Central Nervous System |journal=Frontiers in Robotics and AI |date=2021 |volume=8 |page=702566 |doi=10.3389/frobt.2021.702566 |pmid=34368238 |pmc=8340882 |issn=2296-9144|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Hongyue |last2=Li |first2=Zesheng |last3=Gao |first3=Changyong |last4=Fan |first4=Xinjian |last5=Pang |first5=Yuxin |last6=Li |first6=Tianlong |last7=Wu |first7=Zhiguang |last8=Xie |first8=Hui |last9=He |first9=Qiang |title=Dual-responsive biohybrid neutrobots for active target delivery |journal=Science Robotics |date=24 March 2021 |volume=6 |issue=52 |doi=10.1126/scirobotics.aaz9519 |pmid=34043546 |s2cid=232368379 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rojas |first1=Carlos de |title=Arming Biological Nanobots to Deliver Drugs Inside Our Bodies |url=https://www.labiotech.eu/in-depth/nanobots-drug-delivery/ |website=Labiotech.eu |access-date=30 January 2022 |date=20 October 2021}}</ref> Programmability for combinations of features such as "tissue penetration, site-targeting, stimuli responsiveness, and cargo-loading" makes such nanobots promising candidates for "[[precision medicine]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Yong |title=Self-Assembly of DNA Molecules: Towards DNA Nanorobots for Biomedical Applications |journal=Cyborg and Bionic Systems |date=19 October 2021 |volume=2021 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.34133/2021/9807520 |pmid=36285141 |pmc=9494698 |s2cid=239462084 |language=en}}</ref>

At a clinical level, cancer treatment with nanomedicine would consist of the supply of nanorobots to the patient through an injection that will search for cancerous cells while leaving the healthy ones untouched. Patients that are treated through nanomedicine would thereby not notice the presence of these nanomachines inside them; the only thing that would be noticeable is the progressive improvement of their health.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} Nanobiotechnology may be useful for medicine formulation.{{clarify|date=February 2020}}

"Precision antibiotics" has been proposed to make use of [[bacteriocin]]-mechanisms for targeted antibiotics.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bactericidal nanomachine: Researchers reveal the mechanisms behind a natural bacteria killer |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-04-bactericidal-nanomachine-reveal-mechanisms-natural.html |access-date=17 May 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ge |first1=Peng |last2=Scholl |first2=Dean |last3=Prokhorov |first3=Nikolai S. |last4=Avaylon |first4=Jaycob |last5=Shneider |first5=Mikhail M. |last6=Browning |first6=Christopher |last7=Buth |first7=Sergey A. |last8=Plattner |first8=Michel |last9=Chakraborty |first9=Urmi |last10=Ding |first10=Ke |last11=Leiman |first11=Petr G. |last12=Miller |first12=Jeff F. |last13=Zhou |first13=Z. Hong |title=Action of a minimal contractile bactericidal nanomachine |journal=Nature |date=April 2020 |volume=580 |issue=7805 |pages=658–662 |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2186-z |pmid=32350467 |bibcode=2020Natur.580..658G |s2cid=215774771 |pmc=7513463 }}</ref>

;Nanoparticles
[[Nanoparticle]]s are already widely used in medicine. Its applications overlap with those of nanobots and in some cases it may be difficult to distinguish between them. They can be used to for diagnosis and [[Nanoparticle drug delivery|targeted drug delivery]], encapsulating medicine.<ref name="10.1177/1943089213506978">{{cite journal |last1=Nasimi |first1=Parva |last2=Haidari |first2=Maryam |title=Medical Use of Nanoparticles |journal=International Journal of Green Nanotechnology |date=1 January 2013 |volume=1 |pages=194308921350697 |doi=10.1177/1943089213506978 |issn=1943-0906}}</ref> Some can be [[Magnetic nanoparticles|manipulated using magnetic fields]] and, for example, experimentally, remote-controlled [[hormone]] release has been achieved this way.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Dekel |last2=Senko |first2=Alexander W. |last3=Moon |first3=Junsang |last4=Yick |first4=Isabel |last5=Varnavides |first5=Georgios |last6=Gregureć |first6=Danijela |last7=Koehler |first7=Florian |last8=Chiang |first8=Po-Han |last9=Christiansen |first9=Michael G. |last10=Maeng |first10=Lisa Y. |last11=Widge |first11=Alik S. |last12=Anikeeva |first12=Polina |title=Transgene-free remote magnetothermal regulation of adrenal hormones |journal=Science Advances |date=April 2020 |volume=6 |issue=15 |pages=eaaz3734 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz3734 |pmid=32300655 |pmc=7148104 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.3734R |language=EN}}</ref>

On example advanced application under development are "Trojan horse" designer-nanoparticles that makes blood cells eat away – from the inside out – portions of [[Atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic plaque]] that cause heart attacks<ref>{{cite web|url=https://msutoday.msu.edu/news/2020/nanoparticle-chomps-away-plaques-that-cause-heart-attacks/|title=Nanoparticle chomps away plaques that cause heart attacks|date=27 January 2020|access-date=31 January 2020|publisher=Michigan State University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nanoparticle helps eat away deadly arterial plaque |url=https://newatlas.com/medical/nanoparticle-eats-arterial-plaque/ |website=New Atlas |access-date=13 April 2020 |date=28 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flores |first1=Alyssa M. |last2=Hosseini-Nassab |first2=Niloufar |last3=Jarr |first3=Kai-Uwe |last4=Ye |first4=Jianqin |last5=Zhu |first5=Xingjun |last6=Wirka |first6=Robert |last7=Koh |first7=Ai Leen |last8=Tsantilas |first8=Pavlos |last9=Wang |first9=Ying |last10=Nanda |first10=Vivek |last11=Kojima |first11=Yoko |last12=Zeng |first12=Yitian |last13=Lotfi |first13=Mozhgan |last14=Sinclair |first14=Robert |last15=Weissman |first15=Irving L. |last16=Ingelsson |first16=Erik |last17=Smith |first17=Bryan Ronain |last18=Leeper |first18=Nicholas J. |title=Pro-efferocytic nanoparticles are specifically taken up by lesional macrophages and prevent atherosclerosis |journal=Nature Nanotechnology |date=February 2020 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=154–161 |doi=10.1038/s41565-019-0619-3 |pmid=31988506 |bibcode=2020NatNa..15..154F |pmc=7254969 }}</ref> and are the current [[List of causes of death by rate|most common cause of death globally]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Fundamental beliefs about atherosclerosis overturned: Complications of artery-hardening condition are number one killer worldwide |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150706123730.htm |website=ScienceDaily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death|title=The top 10 causes of death|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref>

;Artificial cells
[[Artificial cell]]s such as synthetic red blood cells that have all or many of [[red blood cell|the natural cells]]' known broad natural properties and abilities could be used to load functional cargos such as [[hemoglobin]], drugs, magnetic [[nanoparticle]]s, and ATP [[biosensor]]s which may enable additional non-native functionalities.<ref name="phys-blood">{{cite news |title=Synthetic red blood cells mimic natural ones, and have new abilities |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-06-synthetic-red-blood-cells-mimic.html |access-date=13 June 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Jimin |last2=Agola |first2=Jacob Ongudi |last3=Serda |first3=Rita |last4=Franco |first4=Stefan |last5=Lei |first5=Qi |last6=Wang |first6=Lu |last7=Minster |first7=Joshua |last8=Croissant |first8=Jonas G. |last9=Butler |first9=Kimberly S. |last10=Zhu |first10=Wei |last11=Brinker |first11=C. Jeffrey |title=Biomimetic Rebuilding of Multifunctional Red Blood Cells: Modular Design Using Functional Components |journal=ACS Nano |date=11 May 2020 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=7847–7859 |doi=10.1021/acsnano.9b08714 |pmid=32391687 |osti=1639054 |s2cid=218584795 }}</ref>

;Other
Nanofibers that mimic the matrix around cells and contain molecules that were engineered to wiggle was shown to be a [[Spinal cord injury research#Bionanoengineered scaffolds|potential therapy for spinal cord injury]] in mice.<ref>{{cite news |title=Therapy used on mice may transform spinal injury treatments, say scientists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/nov/11/therapy-used-in-mice-may-revolutionise-treatment-of-spinal-cord-injuries-say-scientists |access-date=11 December 2021 |work=The Guardian |date=11 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=University |title='Dancing molecules' successfully repair severe spinal cord injuries in mice |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-11-molecules-successfully-severe-spinal-cord.html |access-date=11 December 2021 |work=[[Northwestern University]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Álvarez |first1=Z. |last2=Kolberg-Edelbrock |first2=A. N. |last3=Sasselli |first3=I. R. |last4=Ortega |first4=J. A. |last5=Qiu |first5=R. |last6=Syrgiannis |first6=Z. |last7=Mirau |first7=P. A. |last8=Chen |first8=F. |last9=Chin |first9=S. M. |last10=Weigand |first10=S. |last11=Kiskinis |first11=E. |last12=Stupp |first12=S. I. |title=Bioactive scaffolds with enhanced supramolecular motion promote recovery from spinal cord injury |journal=Science |date=12 November 2021 |volume=374 |issue=6569 |pages=848–856 |doi=10.1126/science.abh3602|pmid=34762454 |pmc=8723833 |bibcode=2021Sci...374..848A |s2cid=244039388 }}</ref>

Technically, gene therapy can also be considered to be a form of nanobiotechnology or to move towards it.<ref name="risk"/> An example of an area of genome editing related developments that is more clearly nanobiotechnology than more conventional gene therapies, is synthetic fabrication of functional materials in tissues. Researcher made ''[[C. elegans]]'' worms synthesize, fabricate, and assemble [[Bioelectronics|bioelectronic materials]] in its brain cells. <!--They leveraged the cellular systems of the living organism to build insulating and conducting polymers at the [[plasma membrane]] of neurons by genetically editing its neurons to produce the enzyme APEX2 which was then triggered by a chemical substance they immersed the worms in and supplied the molecules of two [[Biocompatibility|biocompatible]] building-materials. This enabled--> They enabled modulation of membrane properties in specific neuron populations and manipulation of behavior in the living animals which might be useful in the study and treatments for diseases such as [[multiple sclerosis]] in specific and demonstrates the viability of such synthetic in vivo fabrication.<ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists program cells to carry out gene-guided construction projects |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-03-scientists-cells-gene-guided.html |access-date=5 April 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Otto |first1=Kevin J. |last2=Schmidt |first2=Christine E. |title=Neuron-targeted electrical modulation |journal=Science |date=20 March 2020 |volume=367 |issue=6484 |pages=1303–1304 |doi=10.1126/science.abb0216 |pmid=32193309 |bibcode=2020Sci...367.1303O |s2cid=213192749 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |authorlink18=Zhenan Bao |authorlink19=Karl Deisseroth |last1=Liu |first1=Jia |last2=Kim |first2=Yoon Seok |last3=Richardson |first3=Claire E. |last4=Tom |first4=Ariane |last5=Ramakrishnan |first5=Charu |last6=Birey |first6=Fikri |last7=Katsumata |first7=Toru |last8=Chen |first8=Shucheng |last9=Wang |first9=Cheng |last10=Wang |first10=Xiao |last11=Joubert |first11=Lydia-Marie |last12=Jiang |first12=Yuanwen |last13=Wang |first13=Huiliang |last14=Fenno |first14=Lief E. |last15=Tok |first15=Jeffrey B.-H. |last16=Pașca |first16=Sergiu P. |last17=Shen |first17=Kang |last18=Bao |first18=Zhenan |last19=Deisseroth |first19=Karl |title=Genetically targeted chemical assembly of functional materials in living cells, tissues, and animals |journal=Science |date=20 March 2020 |volume=367 |issue=6484 |pages=1372–1376 |doi=10.1126/science.aay4866 |pmid=32193327 |pmc=7527276 |bibcode=2020Sci...367.1372L |s2cid=213191980 }}</ref> Moreover, such genetically modified neurons may enable connecting external components – such as prosthetic limbs – to nerves.<ref>{{cite news |title=Genetically modified neurons could help us connect to implants |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2237987-genetically-modified-neurons-could-help-us-connect-to-implants/ |access-date=1 February 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref>

[[Nanosensor]]s based on e.g. nanotubes, nanowires, cantilevers, or atomic force microscopy could be applied to diagnostic devices/sensors<ref name="10.1177/1943089213506978"/>

===Nanobiotechnology===
Nanobiotechnology (sometimes referred to as nanobiology) in medicine may be best described as helping modern [[medicine]] progress from treating [[symptom]]s to generating [[cure]]s and regenerating [[Tissue (biology)|biological tissue]]s.

Three American patients have received whole cultured [[Urinary bladder|bladder]]s with the help of doctors who use nanobiology techniques in their practice. Also, it has been demonstrated in animal studies that a [[uterus]] can be grown [[artificial uterus|outside the body]] and then placed in the body in order to produce a [[Infant|baby]]. [[Stem cell treatments]] have been used to fix diseases that are found in the [[human heart]] and are in clinical trials in the United States.  There is also funding for research into allowing people to have new limbs without having to resort to prosthesis. Artificial [[protein]]s might also become available to manufacture without the need for harsh [[chemical]]s and expensive machines. It has even been surmised that by the year 2055, [[computer]]s may be made out of [[Biochemistry|biochemical]]s and organic [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]].<ref name="future">{{cite web |url=http://www.zdnet.com/blog/btl/the-future-of-nano-biology-regenerating-tissue-and-artificial-proteins/1442 |title=The future of nano-biology |publisher=ZD Net}}</ref>

====In vivo biosensors====
Another example of current nanobiotechnological research involves nanospheres coated with fluorescent polymers. Researchers are seeking to design polymers whose fluorescence is quenched when they encounter specific molecules. Different polymers would detect different metabolites. The polymer-coated spheres could become part of new biological assays, and the technology might someday lead to particles which could be introduced into the human body to track down [[biomarker|metabolites associated with tumors and other health problems]]. Another example, from a different perspective, would be evaluation and therapy at the nanoscopic level, i.e. the treatment of nanobacteria (25-200&nbsp;nm sized) as is done by NanoBiotech Pharma.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

====In vitro biosensors====
[[Biosensor#DNA biosensors|"Nanoantennas" made out of DNA]] – a novel type of nano-scale [[optical antenna]] – can be attached to proteins and produce a signal via [[fluorescence]] when these perform their biological functions, in particular for their distinct [[conformational change]]s. This could be used for further nanobiotechnology such as various types of nanomachines, to develop new drugs, for bioresearch and for new avenues in biochemistry.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chemists use DNA to build the world's tiniest antenna |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-01-chemists-dna-world-tiniest-antenna.html |access-date=19 January 2022 |work=University of Montreal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harroun |first1=Scott G. |last2=Lauzon |first2=Dominic |last3=Ebert |first3=Maximilian C. C. J. C. |last4=Desrosiers |first4=Arnaud |last5=Wang |first5=Xiaomeng |last6=Vallée-Bélisle |first6=Alexis |title=Monitoring protein conformational changes using fluorescent nanoantennas |journal=Nature Methods |date=January 2022 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=71–80 |doi=10.1038/s41592-021-01355-5 |pmid=34969985 |s2cid=245593311 |language=en |issn=1548-7105|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Energy====
It may also be useful in [[sustainable energy]]: in 2022, researchers reported [[3D printing|3D-printed]] nano-"skyscraper" electrodes – albeit [[Microtechnology|micro-scale]], the pillars [[Nanomanufacturing|had nano-features of porosity due to printed metal nanoparticle inks]] – (nanotechnology) that house [[cyanobacteria]] for extracting substantially more [[sustainable energy|sustainable]] bioenergy from their [[artificial photosynthesis|photosynthesis]] (biotechnology) than in earlier studies.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tiny 'skyscrapers' help bacteria convert sunlight into electricity |url=https://techxplore.com/news/2022-03-tiny-skyscrapers-bacteria-sunlight-electricity.html |access-date=19 April 2022 |work=[[University of Cambridge]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/50072/20220324/bacteria-consume-greenhouse-gas-methane-convert-fuel.htm |title=This Bacteria Can Consume Greenhouse Gas Methane and Convert it Into Fuel |last=Franco |first=Louise |date=24 March 2022 |access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tiny Skyscrapers help generate more electricity from cyanobacteria |url=https://www.biotechniques.com/microbiology/tiny-skyscrapers-help-generate-more-electricity-from-cyanobacteria/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=BioTechniques |date=15 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title="Tiny skyscraper" electrodes boost bioenergy output of blue-green algae |url=https://newatlas.com/science/tiny-skyscraper-electrodes-bioenergy-output-photosynthetic-cyanobacteria/ |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=New Atlas |date=8 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Xiaolong |last2=Lawrence |first2=Joshua M. |last3=Wey |first3=Laura T. |last4=Schertel |first4=Lukas |last5=Jing |first5=Qingshen |last6=Vignolini |first6=Silvia |last7=Howe |first7=Christopher J. |last8=Kar-Narayan |first8=Sohini |last9=Zhang |first9=Jenny Z. |title=3D-printed hierarchical pillar array electrodes for high-performance semi-artificial photosynthesis |journal=Nature Materials |date=7 March 2022 |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=811–818 |doi=10.1038/s41563-022-01205-5 |pmid=35256790 |s2cid=247255146 |language=en |issn=1476-4660 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353153555}}</ref>

====Nanobiology====
While nanobiology is in its infancy, there are a lot of promising methods that may rely on nanobiology in the future. Biological systems are inherently nano in scale; nanoscience must merge with biology in order to deliver [[biomacromolecule]]s and molecular machines that are similar to nature. Controlling and mimicking the devices and processes that are constructed from molecules is a tremendous challenge to face for the converging disciplines of nanobiotechnology.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Nanobiology: from physics and engineering to biology |journal=Physical Biology |volume=3 |publisher=IOP Science|doi=10.1088/1478-3975/3/1/E01 |year=2006 |last1=Nussinov |first1=Ruth |last2=Alemán |first2=Carlos |doi-access=free }}</ref> All living things, including [[human]]s, can be considered to be [[nanofoundry|nanofoundries]]. Natural evolution has optimized the "natural" form of nanobiology over millions of years. In the 21st century, humans have developed the technology to artificially tap into nanobiology. This process is best described as "organic merging with synthetic". Colonies of live [[neuron]]s can live together on a [[biochip]] device; according to research from Gunther Gross at the [[University of North Texas]]. Self-assembling nanotubes have the ability to be used as a structural system. They would be composed together with [[rhodopsin]]s; which would facilitate the optical computing process and help with the storage of biological materials. [[DNA]] (as the [[software]] for all living things) can be used as a structural proteomic system – a logical component for molecular computing. Ned Seeman – a researcher at [[New York University]] – along with other researchers are currently researching concepts that are similar to each other.<ref name="historian">{{cite web |url=http://www.historianofthefuture.com/nanobio.html |title=The Nanobiology Imperative |publisher=HistorianoftheFuture.com}}</ref>

===Bionanotechnology===
====Distinction from nanobiotechnology====
Broadly, bionanotechnology can be distinguished from nanobiotechnology in that it refers to nanotechnology that makes use of biological materials/components – it could in principle or does alternatively use abiotic components. It plays a smaller role in medicine (which is concerned with biological organisms). It makes use of natural or biomimetic systems or elements for unique nanoscale structures and various applications that may not be directionally associated with biology rather than mostly biological applications. In contrast, nanobiotechnology uses biotechnology miniaturized to nanometer size or incorporates nanomolecules into biological systems. In some future applications, both fields could be merged.<ref>{{cite book |title=Plenty of Room for Biology at the Bottom |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-677-6 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9781860948190_0001 |chapter=Introduction: Nanobiotechnology and Bionanotechnology|doi=10.1142/9781860948190_0001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biointerface: Nanobiotechnology and Bionanotechnology |url=https://biointerface.org/bi/nanobio/ |website=biointerface.org |access-date=24 April 2022|first1=Dmitri |last1=Petrovykh}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Wei |first1=Shuaifei |title=Nanotechnology and Biotechnology - Similarities and Differences |url=https://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4862 |access-date=28 April 2022 |work=AZoNano.com |date=21 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=April 2022}}

====DNA====
[[DNA nanotechnology]] is one important example of bionanotechnology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zadegan |first1=Reza M. |last2=Norton |first2=Michael L.  |title=Structural DNA Nanotechnology: From Design to Applications |journal=Int. J. Mol. Sci. |date=June 2012 |pages=7149–7162 |volume=13 |issue=6 |doi=10.3390/ijms13067149 |pmid=22837684 |pmc=3397516|doi-access=free }}</ref> The utilization of the inherent properties of [[nucleic acid]]s like [[DNA]] to create useful materials or devices – such as [[biosensor]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Jaeyoung K. |last2=Archuleta |first2=Chloé M. |last3=Alam |first3=Khalid K. |last4=Lucks |first4=Julius B. |title=Programming cell-free biosensors with DNA strand displacement circuits |journal=Nature Chemical Biology |date=17 February 2022 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=385–393 |doi=10.1038/s41589-021-00962-9 |pmid=35177837 |pmc=8964419 |s2cid=246901702 |language=en |issn=1552-4469}}</ref> – is a promising area of modern research.

[[DNA digital data storage]] refers mostly to the use of synthesized but otherwise conventional strands of [[DNA]] to store digital data, which could be useful for e.g. high-density long-term [[Computer data storage#Storage media|data]] [[data storage|storage]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Scientists claim big advance in using DNA to store data|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-59489560|work=bbc.co.uk|date=2 December 2021|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref><!--study missing--> that isn't accessed and written to frequently as an alternative to [[5D optical data storage]] or for use in combination with other nanobiotechnology.

====Membrane materials====
Another important area of research involves taking advantage of [[membrane]] properties to generate synthetic membranes. Proteins that [[Molecular self-assembly|self-assemble]] to generate functional materials could be used as a novel approach for the large-scale production of programmable nanomaterials. One example is the development of [[amyloids]] found in bacterial [[biofilm]]s as engineered [[nanomaterials]] that can be programmed genetically to have different properties.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Peter|last2=Botyanszki|first2=Zsofia|last3=Tay|first3=Pei-Kun|last4=Joshi|first4=Neel|title=Programmable biofilm-based materials from engineered curli nanofibres|journal=Nature Communications|date=Sep 17, 2014|volume=5|page=4945|doi=10.1038/ncomms5945|pmid=25229329|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4945N|url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/14350457/Nguyen%20et%20al_reNatCom_FINAL.pdf?sequence=1|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Lipid nanotechnology====
[[Lipid nanotechnology]] is another major area of research in bionanotechnology, where physico-chemical properties of lipids such as their antifouling and self-assembly is exploited to build nanodevices with applications in medicine and engineering.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Mashaghi S. |author2=Jadidi T. |author3=Koenderink G. |author3-link=Gijsje Koenderink|author4=Mashaghi A. | year = 2013| title = Lipid Nanotechnology | journal = Int. J. Mol. Sci. | volume = 14|issue=2 | pages = 4242–4282 | doi = 10.3390/ijms14024242 | pmid=23429269 | pmc=3588097|doi-access=free }}</ref> Lipid nanotechnology approaches can also be used to develop next-generation emulsion methods to maximize both absorption of fat-soluble nutrients and the ability to incorporate them into popular beverages.<ref>[https://axiomm.com/2020/04/using-nanotechnology-to-create-beverages-infused-with-cbd-and-omega-3-fatty-acids/ using-nanotechnology-to-create-beverages-infused-with-cbd-and-omega-3-fatty-acids, axiomm.com - 2020]</ref>

====Computing====
"[[Memristor]]s" fabricated from [[Bacterial nanowires|protein nanowires]] of the bacterium ''[[Geobacter sulfurreducens]]'' which function at substantially lower voltages than previously described ones may allow the construction of artificial neurons which function at voltages of biological [[action potential]]s. The nanowires have a range of advantages over silicon nanowires and the memristors may be used to directly process [[Biosensor|biosensing signals]], for [[neuromorphic computing]] (see also: [[wetware computer]]) and/or [[Brain-computer interface|direct communication with biological neurons]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Scientists create tiny devices that work like the human brain |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/brain-computing-memory-artificial-synapse-memristor-a9473671.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/brain-computing-memory-artificial-synapse-memristor-a9473671.html |archive-date=2022-06-18 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=17 May 2020 |work=The Independent |date=20 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Researchers unveil electronics that mimic the human brain in efficient learning |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-04-unveil-electronics-mimic-human-brain.html |access-date=17 May 2020 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Tianda |last2=Liu |first2=Xiaomeng |last3=Gao |first3=Hongyan |last4=Ward |first4=Joy E. |last5=Liu |first5=Xiaorong |last6=Yin |first6=Bing |last7=Wang |first7=Zhongrui |last8=Zhuo |first8=Ye |last9=Walker |first9=David J. F. |last10=Joshua Yang |first10=J. |last11=Chen |first11=Jianhan |last12=Lovley |first12=Derek R. |last13=Yao |first13=Jun |title=Bioinspired bio-voltage memristors |journal=Nature Communications |date=20 April 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=1861 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15759-y |pmid=32313096 |pmc=7171104 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.1861F |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Other====
[[Protein folding]] studies provide a third important avenue of research, but one that has been largely inhibited by our inability to predict protein folding with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. Given the myriad uses that biological systems have for proteins, though, research into understanding protein folding is of high importance and could prove fruitful for bionanotechnology in the future.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

===Agriculture===

In the agriculture industry, engineered nanoparticles have been serving as nano carriers, containing herbicides, chemicals, or genes, which target particular plant parts to release their content.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Raja |display-authors=etal  | year = 2016 | title = Nanobiotechnological approach using plant rooting hormones synthesized silver nanoparticle as a nanobullets for the dynamic applications in horticulture -An in vitro and ex vitro study | journal = Arabian Journal of Chemistry | volume =  11| pages =  48–61| doi = 10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022 | doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=thangavelu|first=Raja muthuramalingam|title=Effect Of Deoxycholate Capped Silver nanoparticles In Seed Dormancy Breaking Of Withania Somnifera|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/116/06/0952.pdf|journal=Current Science|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=6 |pages=952|doi=10.18520/cs/v116/i6/952-958|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Previously nanocapsules containing herbicides have been reported to effectively penetrate through cuticles and tissues, allowing the slow and constant release of the active substances. Likewise, other literature describes that nano-encapsulated slow release of fertilizers has also become a trend to save fertilizer consumption and to minimize environmental pollution through [[Precision agriculture|precision]] farming. These are only a few examples from numerous research works which might open up exciting opportunities for nanobiotechnology application in agriculture. Also, application of this kind of engineered nanoparticles to plants should be considered the level of amicability before it is employed in agriculture practices. Based on a thorough literature survey, it was understood that there is only limited authentic information available to explain the biological consequence of engineered nanoparticles on treated plants. Certain reports underline the phytotoxicity of various origin of engineered nanoparticles to the plant caused by the subject of concentrations and sizes . At the same time, however, an equal number of studies were reported with a positive outcome of nanoparticles, which facilitate growth promoting nature to treat plant.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Raja |display-authors=etal  | year = 2016 | title = Nanobiotechnological approach using plant rooting hormones synthesized silver nanoparticle as a "nanobullets" for the dynamic applications in horticulture -An in vitro and ex vitro study | journal = Arabian Journal of Chemistry | volume =  11| pages =  48–61| doi = 10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.022 | doi-access = free}}</ref> In particular, compared to other nanoparticles, silver and gold nanoparticles based applications elicited beneficial results on various plant species with less and/or no toxicity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Raja | last2 = Chandrasekar | first2 = S. | last3 = Dharanivasan | first3 = G. | last4 = Nallusamy | first4 = D. | last5 = Rajendran | first5 = N. | last6 = Kathiravan | first6 = K. | year = 2015 | title = Bioactive bile salt capped silver nanoparticle activity against destructive plant pathogenic fungi through in vitro system | journal = RSC Advances | volume = 5 | issue = 87| pages = 71174–71182 | doi=10.1039/c5ra13306h| bibcode = 2015RSCAd...571174R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Raqual | first1 = B. | last2 = Eudald | first2 = C. | last3 = Joan | first3 = C. | last4 = Xavier | first4 = F. | last5 = Antoni | first5 = S. | last6 = Victor | first6 = P. | year = 2009 | title = Evaluation of the ecotoxicity of model nanoparticles | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.01.078 | pmid = 19264345 | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 75 | issue = 7| pages = 850–857 | bibcode = 2009Chmsp..75..850B | url = http://ddd.uab.cat/record/163651 }}</ref> Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) treated leaves of Asparagus showed the increased content of ascorbate and chlorophyll. Similarly, AgNPs-treated common bean and corn has increased shoot and root length, leaf surface area, chlorophyll, carbohydrate and protein contents reported earlier.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hediat Salama | first1 = M. H. | year = 2012 | title = Effects of silver nanoparticles in some crop plants, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) | journal = International Research Journal of Biotechnology | volume = 3 | issue = 10| pages = 190–197 }}</ref> The gold nanoparticle has been used to induce growth and seed yield in Brassica juncea.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Arora | first1 = Sandeep | last2 = Sharma | first2 = Priyadarshini | last3 = Kumar | first3 = Sumit | last4 = Nayan | first4 = Rajeev | last5 = Khanna | first5 = P. K. | last6 = Zaidi | first6 = M. G. N. | year = 2012 | title = Gold nanoparticles induced enhancement in growth and seed yield of Brassica juncea | journal = Plant Growth Regul | volume = 66 | issue = 3| pages = 303–310 | doi=10.1007/s10725-011-9649-z| s2cid = 17018032 }}</ref>

==Tools==
This field relies on a variety of research methods, including experimental tools (e.g. imaging, characterization via [[atomic force microscopy|AFM]]/optical tweezers etc.), [[x-ray diffraction]] based tools, synthesis via self-assembly, characterization of self-assembly (using e.g. [[multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance|MP-SPR]], [[dual-polarization interferometry|DPI]], [[recombinant DNA]] methods, etc.), theory (e.g. [[statistical mechanics]], nanomechanics, etc.), as well as computational approaches (bottom-up multi-scale [[simulation]], [[supercomputing]]).

== Risk management ==
{{Further|Technological fix#Concerns|Differential technological development}}
<!--{{Expand section|date=February 2022}}-->
As of 2009, the risks of nanobiotechnologies are poorly understood and in the U.S. there is no solid national consensus on what kind of regulatory policy principles should be followed.<ref name="risk">{{cite web |last1=Hornig Priest |first1=Susanna |title=Risk Communication for Nanobiotechnology: To Whom, About What, and Why? |url=https://consortium.umn.edu/sites/consortium.umn.edu/files/Risk%20Communication%20for%20Nanobiotechnology-%20To%20Whom%2C%20About%20What%2C%20and%20Why.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022214410/https://consortium.umn.edu/sites/consortium.umn.edu/files/Risk%20Communication%20for%20Nanobiotechnology-%20To%20Whom%2C%20About%20What%2C%20and%20Why.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, nanobiotechnologies may have hard to control effects on the environment or ecosystems and human health. The metal-based nanoparticles used for biomedical prospectives are extremely enticing in various applications due to their distinctive physicochemical characteristics, allowing them to influence cellular processes at the biological level. The fact that metal-based nanoparticles have high surface-to-volume ratios makes them reactive or catalytic. Due to their small size, they are more likely to be able to penetrate biological barriers such as cell membranes and cause cellular dysfunction in living organisms. Indeed, the high toxicity of some transition metals can make it challenging to use mixed oxide NPs in biomedical uses. It triggers adverse effects on organisms, causing oxidative stress, stimulating the formation of ROS, mitochondrial perturbation, and the modulation of cellular functions, with fatal results in some cases.<ref>Min, Y.; Suminda, G.G.D.; Heo, Y.; Kim, M.; Ghosh, M.; Son, Y.-O. Metal-Based Nanoparticles and Their Relevant Consequences on Cytotoxicity Cascade and Induced Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 703. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12030703</ref> 

Bonin notes that "Nanotechnology is not a specific determinate homogenous entity, but a collection of diverse capabilities and applications" and that nanobiotechnology research and development is – as one of many fields – affected by [[dual-use technology|dual-use]] problems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Challenges to Biosecurity from Advances in the Life Sciences |url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/challenges-biosecurity-advances-life-sciences |website=United Nations |access-date=1 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Biomimicry]]
* [[Colloidal gold]]
* [[Genome editing]] ([[Genetically modified bacteria|bacteria]], ([[Borg (microbiology)|micro-borgs]]))
* [[Gold nanoparticle]]
* [[Nanobiomechanics]]
* [[Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate]]
* [[Nanosubmarine]]
* [[Nanozymes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITtGJUGXFKc What is Bionanotechnology?]&mdash;a video introduction to the field
* [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8943510&fileId=S194642741300804X Nanobiotechnology in Orthopaedic]

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[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]