View source for Nature-based solutions

{{short description|Sustainable management and use of nature for tackling socio-environmental challenges}}
[[File:NRCSIA00041 - Iowa (2285)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|thumb|Example for a nature-based solution in the area of [[Water resources|water resource]] management: this [[riparian buffer]] protects a creek in [[Iowa]], United States from the impact of adjacent [[Land use|land uses]]]]

'''Nature-based solutions''' ('''NBS''' or '''NbS''') is the [[sustainable management]] and [[sustainable use|use]] of [[nature|natural]] features and processes to tackle [[social issue|socio]]-[[environmental issues]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Girardin |first1=Cécile A. J. |last2=Jenkins |first2=Stuart |last3=Seddon |first3=Nathalie |last4=Allen |first4=Myles |last5=Lewis |first5=Simon L. |last6=Wheeler |first6=Charlotte E. |last7=Griscom |first7=Bronson W. |last8=Malhi |first8=Yadvinder |title=Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet — if we act now |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2021 |volume=593 |issue=7858 |pages=191–194 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-01241-2 |doi-access=free|pmid=33981055 |bibcode=2021Natur.593..191G }}</ref> These issues include for example [[climate change]] ([[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] and [[Climate change adaptation|adaptation]]), [[water security]], [[food security]], preservation of [[biodiversity]], and [[disaster risk reduction]]. Through the use of NBS healthy, resilient, and diverse [[ecosystems]] (whether natural, managed, or newly created) can provide solutions for the benefit of both societies and overall biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|s2cid=53518417 |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|access-date=24 May 2020|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]] highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=U. N. |date=2019 |title=Nature-Based Solutions for Climate |url=http://www.unep.org/nature-based-solutions-climate |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UNEP - UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> For example, NBS in the context of [[climate action]] can include natural [[flood management]], restoring natural [[coastal defences]], providing local cooling, restoring natural [[Fire regime|fire regimes]].<ref name=":13" />{{rp|310}}

For instance, the restoration and/or protection of [[mangroves]] along coastlines utilises a nature-based solution to accomplish several goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marois|first1=Darryl E.|last2=Mitsch|first2=William J.|date=2 January 2015|title=Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|journal=International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management|volume=11|issue=1|pages=71–83|doi=10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|bibcode=2015IJBSE..11...71M |s2cid=86554474|issn=2151-3732|access-date=5 September 2021|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175644/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|url-status=live}}</ref> and sequester CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{Citation|last=Inoue|first=Tomomi|title=Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|work=Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems|year=2019|pages=73–99|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|isbn=978-981-13-1294-6|s2cid=133839393|access-date=5 September 2021|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175544/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-13-1295-3_3|url-status=live}}</ref> They also provide nursery zones for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining fisheries on which local populations may depend. Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control [[coastal erosion]] resulting from [[sea level rise]]. Similarly, [[green roofs]] or walls are Nature-based solutions that can be implemented in cities to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture storm water, abate [[pollution]], and act as carbon sinks, while simultaneously enhancing [[biodiversity]].

NBS are increasingly being incorporated into mainstream national and international policies and programmes (e.g. climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms), with increasing attention being given to NBS by the [[European Commission]] since 2013.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Faivre|first1=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=de Boissezon|first4=Birgit|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|date=2017|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|pmid=28886502|bibcode=2017ER....159..509F|s2cid=42573101|issn=0013-9351|access-date=5 September 2021|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175546/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935117316080?via%3Dihub|url-status=live}}</ref> However, NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last1=Wamsler |first1=C. |last2=Wickenberg |first2=B. |last3=Hanson |first3=H. |last4=Alkan Olsson |first4=J. |last5=Stålhammar |first5=S. |last6=Björn |first6=H. |last7=Falck |first7=H. |last8=Gerell |first8=D. |last9=Oskarsson |first9=T. |last10=Simonsson |first10=E. |last11=Torffvit |first11=F. |date=2020 |title=Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=247 |pages=119154 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154 |issn=0959-6526 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Chausson |first1=Alexandre |last2=Turner |first2=Beth |last3=Seddon |first3=Dan |last4=Chabaneix |first4=Nicole |last5=Girardin |first5=Cécile A. J. |last6=Kapos |first6=Valerie |last7=Key |first7=Isabel |last8=Roe |first8=Dilys |last9=Smith |first9=Alison |last10=Woroniecki |first10=Stephen |last11=Seddon |first11=Nathalie |date=2020-09-09 |title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation |journal=Global Change Biology |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=6134–6155 |bibcode=2020GCBio..26.6134C |doi=10.1111/gcb.15310 |issn=1354-1013 |pmid=32906226 |s2cid=221621517 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 
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== Definition ==
[[File:ISS047-E-84351 Cape Coral, Florida (annotated).jpg|thumb|Mangroves protect coastlines against erosion ([[Cape Coral, Florida|Cape Coral]], Florida, United States)]]
The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) defines NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits".<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401093813/https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191|date=1 April 2021}}</ref> ''Societal challenges'' of relevance here include [[climate change]], [[food security]], [[disaster risk reduction]], [[water security]].

In other words: "Nature-based solutions are interventions that use the natural functions of healthy ecosystems to protect the environment but also provide numerous economic and social benefits."<ref>Dubash, N.K., C.  Mitchell, E.L.  Boasson, M.J.  Borbor-Cordova, S.  Fifita, E.  Haites, M.  Jaccard, F.  Jotzo, S.  Naidoo, P.  Romero-Lankao, M.  Shlapak, W.  Shen, L. Wu, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter13.pdf Chapter 13: National and sub-national policies and institutions]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D.  McCollum, M.  Pathak, S.  Some, P. Vyas, R.  Fradera, M.  Belkacemi, A.  Hasija, G.  Lisboa, S.  Luz, J.  Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.015</ref>{{rp|1403}} They are used both in the context of [[climate change mitigation]] as well as [[Climate change adaptation|adaptation]].<ref>Lecocq, F., H. Winkler, J.P. Daka, S. Fu, J.S. Gerber, S. Kartha, V. Krey, H. Lofgren, T. Masui, R. Mathur, J. Portugal-Pereira, B.  K. Sovacool,  M. V. Vilariño,  N. Zhou, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Chapter04.pdf Chapter 4: Mitigation and development pathways in the near- to mid-term]. In IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/ Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van  Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.006</ref>{{rp|469}}

The [[European Commission|European Commission's]] definition of NBS states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]]. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923161801/http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs |archive-date=23 September 2019 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=}}</ref>  In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that "Nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Wild |first1=Tom |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects |last2=Freitas |first2=Tiago |last3=Vandewoestijne |first3=Sofie |date=2020 |access-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111152411/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> 

The [[IPCC Sixth Assessment Report]] pointed out that the term ''nature-based solutions'' is "widely but not universally used in the scientific literature".<ref name=":12">IPCC, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf Summary for Policymakers] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.</ref>{{rp|24}} As of 2017, the term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined and vague".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017 |title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/541133b |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=541 |issue=7636 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.1038/541133b |pmid=28079099 |bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133. |s2cid=4455842 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref>

The term ''[[ecosystem-based adaptation]]'' (EbA) is a subset of nature-based solutions and "aims to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and people in the face of the adverse effects of climate change".<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}}

=== History of the term ===
The term ''nature-based solutions'' was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s. At that time it was used by international organisations such as the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] and the [[World Bank]] in the context of finding new solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change effects by working with natural ecosystems rather than relying purely on engineering interventions.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="MacKinnon11">MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. [https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/149141468320661795/biodiversity-climate-change-and-adaptation-nature-based-solutions-from-the-world-bank-portfolio Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio]. Washington D.C.: World Bank.</ref><ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|3}} 

Many indigenous peoples have recognised the natural environment as playing an important role in human well-being as part of their traditional knowledge systems, but this idea did not enter into modern scientific literature until the 1970's with the concept of [[ecosystem service]]s.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|2}} 

The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]].<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> The term was also adopted by European policymakers, in particular by the European Commission, in a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing that NBS can offer innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a [[green economy]]. The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of the [[Global Climate Action Summit]] in California in September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 September 2018 |title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda |url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112911/http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda}}</ref>

== Objectives and framing ==
[[File:Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg|thumb|Coastal habitat protection at [[Morro Strand State Beach]] in San Luis Obispo County, California]]Nature-bases solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.<ref name=":5" /> NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and [[poverty reduction]], [[Socioeconomic development|socio-economic development]], and [[governance]] principles.

The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=2019-08-08}})
17. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, the [[IUCN]] puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of "Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services".<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077|date=8 August 2019}})</ref>

The European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning [[natural capital]] into a source for green growth and sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> Within this viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges "bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213072645/http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf|date=13 December 2016}})</ref>

== Categories ==
The IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an [[umbrella concept]].<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" /> Categories and examples of NBS approaches according to the IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Category of NBS approaches
!Examples
|-
|[[Ecosystem restoration]] approaches
|Ecological restoration, [[ecological engineering]], forest landscape restoration
|-
|Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches
|[[Ecosystem-based adaptation]], ecosystem-based mitigation, climate adaptation services, [[ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction]]
|-
|Infrastructure-related approaches
|Natural infrastructure, [[green infrastructure]]
|-
|[[Ecosystem-based management]] approaches
|[[Integrated coastal zone management]], [[integrated water resources management]]
|-
|Ecosystem protection approaches
|Area-based conservation approaches including protected area management
|}

== Types ==

[[File:Fig 2 NbS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.46|Schematic presentation of the NBS typology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Eggermont |first1=Hilde |last2=Balian |first2=Estelle |last3=Azevedo |first3=José Manuel N. |last4=Beumer |first4=Victor |last5=Brodin |first5=Tomas |last6=Claudet |first6=Joachim |last7=Fady |first7=Bruno |last8=Grube |first8=Martin |last9=Keune |first9=Hans |date=2015 |title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe |url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=243–248 |doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9 |s2cid=53518417 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |hdl=10400.3/4170}}</ref>]]

Scientists have proposed a typology to characterise NBS along two gradients:<ref name=":1" />

# "How much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and
# "How many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS".

The typology highlights that NBS can involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, or even the creation of new ecosystems) and is based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximise the delivery of each service and simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups. 

As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality and sustainability goals):

=== Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems ===
Type 1 consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of [[Ecosystem service|ecosystem services]] both inside and outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated with [[extreme weather]] conditions; and the establishment of [[marine protected area]]s to conserve biodiversity within these areas while exporting fish and other [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is connected to, for example, the concept of [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|biosphere reserves]].

=== Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes ===
Type 2 corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types improve the delivery of selected ecosystem services compared to what would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality; using existing [[Agricultural biodiversity|agrobiodiversity]] to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to concepts like [[agroforestry]].

=== Type 3 – Managing ecosystems in extensive ways ===
Type 3 consists of managing ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and [[greening]] cities. [[Constructed wetland|Constructed wetlands]] are one example for a Type 3 NBS.

== Applications ==
=== Climate change mitigation and adaptation ===
The [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]] highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change.<ref name=":14" /> For example, NBS in the context of [[climate action]] can include natural [[flood management]], restoring natural [[coastal defences]], providing local cooling, restoring natural [[Fire regime|fire regimes]].<ref name=":13" />{{rp|310}}

The [[Paris Agreement]] calls on all Parties to recognise the role of natural ecosystems in providing services such as that of carbon sinks.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Harris, Duchess |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1101137974 |title=The Paris climate agreement |date=15 December 2018 |isbn=978-1-5321-5964-0 |oclc=1101137974}}</ref> Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt conservation and management as a tool for increasing carbon stocks and Article 7.1 encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources.<ref name="Article3">[https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en Paris Agreement (2015)], Paris, France</ref> The Agreement refers to ''nature'' (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis <ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform |url=http://www.nbspolicyplatform.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524092518/https://www.nbspolicyplatform.org/ |archive-date=2020-05-24 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=www.nbspolicyplatform.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> of all [[Intended nationally determined contributions|Nationally Determined Contributions]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) {{!}} UNFCCC |url=https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-registry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112909/https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-registry |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |website=unfccc.int |language=en}}</ref> submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges. This suggests a broad consensus for the role of nature in helping to meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-the-ground.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2016 |title=Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world? |url=http://pubs.iied.org/17364IIED/?k=Ecosystem-based+Adaptation+EbA&p=3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112648/http://pubs.iied.org/17364IIED/?k=Ecosystem-based+Adaptation+EbA&p=3 |archive-date=13 September 2018 |access-date=13 September 2018 |journal=}}</ref>

A global systemic map of evidence was produced to determine and illustrate the effectiveness of NBS for [[climate change adaptation]].<ref name=":9" /> After sorting through 386 case studies with computer programs, the study found that NBS were just as, if not more, effective than traditional or alternative flood management strategies.<ref name=":9" /> 66% of cases evaluated reported positive ecological outcomes, 24% did not identify a change in ecological conditions and less than 1% reported negative impacts. Furthermore, NBS always had better social and climate change mitigation impacts.<ref name=":9" />

In the [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]], nature-based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by [[China]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref name=":14" />

=== Urban areas ===
[[File:Chicago City Hall green roof edit.jpg|thumb|Example of nature-based solution for an urban area: [[Chicago City Hall]] [[green roof]]. One of the benefits is that it mitigates the [[urban heat island]] effect,]]
Since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature-based solutions in urban areas.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Raymond |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Frantzeskaki |first2=Niki |last3=Kabisch |first3=Nadja |last4=Berry |first4=Pam |last5=Breil |first5=Margaretha |last6=Nita |first6=Mihai Razvan |last7=Geneletti |first7=Davide |last8=Calfapietra |first8=Carlo |date=2017 |title=A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008 |url-status=live |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |volume=77 |pages=15–24 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008 |issn=1462-9011 |s2cid=55764441 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175655/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901117306317?via%3Dihub |archive-date=23 November 2021 |access-date=5 September 2021 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11572/200028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bush |first1=Judy |last2=Doyon |first2=Andréanne |date=2019 |title=Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483 |url-status=live |journal=Cities |volume=95 |pages=102483 |doi=10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483 |issn=0264-2751 |s2cid=211385632 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175546/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275119313976?via%3Dihub |archive-date=23 November 2021 |access-date=5 September 2021 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11343/233228}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Frantzeskaki |first=Niki |date=2019 |title=Seven lessons for planning nature-based solutions in cities |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |volume=93 |pages=101–111 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2018.12.033 |issn=1462-9011 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

It is crucial that grey infrastructures continue to be used with [[green infrastructure]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Wenjie |last2=Wang |first2=Weiqi |last3=Huang |first3=Guoru |last4=Wang |first4=Zhaoli |last5=Lai |first5=Chengguang |last6=Yang |first6=Zhiyong |date=2021-02-15 |title=The capacity of grey infrastructure in urban flood management: A comprehensive analysis of grey infrastructure and the green-grey approach |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221242092100011X |journal=International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction |language=en |volume=54 |pages=102045 |bibcode=2021IJDRR..5402045C |doi=10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102045 |issn=2212-4209 |s2cid=234190451}}</ref> Multiple studies recognise that while NBS is very effective and improves flood resilience, it is unable to act alone and must be in coordination with grey infrastructure.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kourtis |first1=Ioannis M. |last2=Bellos |first2=Vasilis |last3=Kopsiaftis |first3=George |last4=Psiloglou |first4=Basil |last5=Tsihrintzis |first5=Vassilios A. |date=2021-12-01 |title=Methodology for holistic assessment of grey-green flood mitigation measures for climate change adaptation in urban basins |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169421009355 |journal=Journal of Hydrology |language=en |volume=603 |pages=126885 |bibcode=2021JHyd..60326885K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126885 |issn=0022-1694 |s2cid=239659097}}</ref> Using green infrastructure alone or grey infrastructure alone are less effective than when the two are used together.<ref name=":10" /> When NBS is used alongside grey infrastructure the benefits transcend flood management and improve social conditions, increase carbon sequestration and prepare cities for planning for resilience.<ref name=":8" /> 

In the 1970s a popular approach in the U.S. was that of [[Best management practice for water pollution|Best Management Practices]] (BMP) for using nature as a model for infrastructure and development while the UK had a model for flood management called "[[sustainable drainage system]]s".<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Qi |first1=Yunfei |last2=Chan |first2=Faith Ka Shun |last3=Thorne |first3=Colin |last4=O’Donnell |first4=Emily |last5=Quagliolo |first5=Carlotta |last6=Comino |first6=Elena |last7=Pezzoli |first7=Alessandro |last8=Li |first8=Lei |last9=Griffiths |first9=James |last10=Sang |first10=Yanfang |last11=Feng |first11=Meili |date=October 2020 |title=Addressing Challenges of Urban Water Management in Chinese Sponge Cities via Nature-Based Solutions |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=2788 |doi=10.3390/w12102788 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another framework called "[[Water-sensitive urban design|Water Sensitive Urban Design]]" (WSUD) came out of Australia in the 1990s while [[Low-impact development (U.S. and Canada)|Low Impact Development]] (LID) came out of the U.S.<ref name=":7" />  Eventually New Zealand reframed LID to create "Low Impact Urban Design and Development" (LIUDD) with a focus on using diverse stakeholders as a foundation. Then in the 2000s the western hemisphere largely adopted "[[Green infrastructure for stormwater management|Green Infrastructure]]" for stormwater management as well as enhancing social, economic and environmental conditions for sustainability.<ref name=":7" />

In a Chinese National Government program, the [[Sponge city|Sponge Cities]] Program, planners are using [[Sustainable drainage system|green grey infrastructure]] in 30 Chinese cities as a way to manage pluvial flooding and climate change risk after rapid urbanization.<ref name=":7" />

=== Water management aspects ===
[[File:Flintenbreite constructed wetland.jpg|thumb|Example of a Type 3 nature-based solution: [[Constructed wetland]] for [[wastewater treatment]] at an [[Green building|ecological housing]] estate in Flintenbreite, Germany]]
With respect to water issues, NBS can achieve the following:<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908083130/http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/|date=8 September 2019}}, Geneva, Switzerland</ref>
* Use natural processes to enhance water availability (e.g., [[soil]] moisture retention, [[groundwater recharge]]),
* Improve [[water quality]] (e.g., [[Wetland|natural wetlands]] and [[constructed wetlands]] to treat [[wastewater]]; [[riparian buffer]] strips), and
* Reduce risks associated with water‐related disasters and climate change (e.g., [[floodplain restoration]], [[green roofs]]).
The UN has also tried to promote a shift in perspective towards NBS: the theme for [[World Water Day]] 2018 was "Nature for Water", while [[UN-Water|UN-Water's]] accompanying [[UN World Water Development Report]] was titled "Nature-based Solutions for Water".<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908083130/http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/|date=8 September 2019}}, Geneva, Switzerland</ref>

For example, the [[Lancaster Environment Centre]] has implemented catchments at different scales on flood basins in conjunction with modelling software that allows observers to calculate the factor by which the floodplain expanded during two storm events. The idea is to divert higher floods flows into expandable areas of storage in the landscape.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Hankin |first1=Barry |last2=Page |first2=Trevor |last3=McShane |first3=Gareth |last4=Chappell |first4=Nick |last5=Spray |first5=Chris |last6=Black |first6=Andrew |last7=Comins |first7=Luke |date=2021-08-01 |title=How can we plan resilient systems of nature-based mitigation measures in larger catchments for flood risk reduction now and in the future? |journal=Water Security |language=en |volume=13 |pages=100091 |bibcode=2021WatSe..1300091H |doi=10.1016/j.wasec.2021.100091 |issn=2468-3124 |s2cid=238840688 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Forest restoration for multiple benefits ===
[[Forest restoration]] can benefit both biodiversity and human livelihoods (eg. providing food, timber and medicinal products). Diverse, native tree species are also more likely to be resilient to climate change than plantation forests. Agricultural expansion has been the main driver of [[deforestation]] globally.<ref name="FAO & UNEP-2020">{{cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en |title=The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief |publisher=FAO & UNEP |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-132707-4 |location=Rome |doi=10.4060/ca8985en |s2cid=241416114}}</ref> Forest loss has been estimated at around 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. Over the same period, Asia had the highest net gain of forest area followed by Oceania and Europe.<ref name="GFRA2020">{{cite web |title=Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020 |url=http://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/2020/en/ |access-date=20 September 2020 |website=www.fao.org |language=en}}</ref> Forest restoration, as part of national development strategies, can help countries achieve sustainable development goals.<ref>IUCN (2019), [https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/timber/meetings/2019/20191216/Forest_landscape_restoration_pathways_to_achieving_the_SDGs.pdf Forest landscape restoration pathways to achieving the SDGs], INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE</ref> For example, in Rwanda, the Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, [[World Resources Institute]] and IUCN have began a program in 2015 for forest landscape restoration as a national priority. NBS approaches used were ecological restoration and ecosystem-based mitigation and the program was meant to address the following societal issues: food security, water security, disaster risk reduction.<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|50}} The [[Great Green Wall (Africa)|Great Green Wall]], a joint campaign among African countries to combat desertification launched in 2007.

== Implementation ==
[[File:Tallinn, European Green Capital 2023.jpg|thumb|Example of a city that uses nature-based solutions: [[Tallinn]], the capital of Estonia, has been designated as the [[European Green Capital Award|European Green Capital]] 2023 in recognition of its efforts to promote [[sustainable transport]], [[green economy]] and environmental conservation.]]A number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide effective and appropriate implementation.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />{{rp|5}} One primary principle, for example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation norms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=Carl C.|last2=Renaud|first2=Fabrice G.|date=19 February 2021|title=A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The 'why', 'when', and 'how' of success for disaster risk reduction measures|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4|journal=Ambio|volume=50|issue=8|pages=1552–1573|doi=10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4|pmid=33606249|issn=0044-7447|pmc=8249538|bibcode=2021Ambio..50.1552A |access-date=5 September 2021|archive-date=23 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175550/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13280-021-01502-4|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Cohen-Shacham|first1=Emmanuelle|last2=Andrade|first2=Angela|last3=Dalton|first3=James|last4=Dudley|first4=Nigel|last5=Jones|first5=Mike|last6=Kumar|first6=Chetan|last7=Maginnis|first7=Stewart|last8=Maynard|first8=Simone|last9=Nelson|first9=Cara R.|last10=Renaud|first10=Fabrice G.|last11=Welling|first11=Rebecca|date=2019|title=Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=98|pages=20–29|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014|s2cid=182716739|issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free}}</ref> NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions) and are applied at the landscape scale.

Researchers have pointed out that "instead of framing NBS as an alternative to engineered approaches, we should focus on finding synergies among different solutions".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seddon |first1=Nathalie |last2=Chausson |first2=Alexandre |last3=Berry |first3=Pam |last4=Girardin |first4=Cécile A. J. |last5=Smith |first5=Alison |last6=Turner |first6=Beth |date=2020 |title=Understanding the value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=375 |issue=1794 |pages=20190120 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2019.0120 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=7017763 |pmid=31983344}}</ref>

The concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms),<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Citation |last1=Dhyani |first1=Shalini |title=Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy |date=2020 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_1 |work=Nature-based Solutions for Resilient Ecosystems and Societies |pages=1–26 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175634/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-15-4712-6_1 |url-status=live |series=Disaster Resilience and Green Growth |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Singapore |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_1 |isbn=978-981-15-4711-9 |s2cid=226611591 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |last2=Karki |first2=Madhav |last3=Gupta |first3=Anil Kumar}}</ref> although NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":9" />

Multiple case studies have demonstrated that NBS can be more economically viable than traditional technological infrastructures.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Costa|first1=Sandra|last2=Peters|first2=Rik|last3=Martins|first3=Ricardo|last4=Postmes|first4=Luuk|last5=Keizer|first5=Jan Jacob|last6=Roebeling|first6=Peter|date=March 2021|title=Effectiveness of Nature-Based Solutions on Pluvial Flood Hazard Mitigation: The Case Study of the City of Eindhoven (The Netherlands)|journal=Resources|language=en|volume=10|issue=3|pages=24|doi=10.3390/resources10030024|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

Implementation of NBS requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy schemes, and the creation of opportunities for [[conservation finance]], to name a few.<ref name=":6" />

=== Using geographic information systems (GIS) ===
NBS are also determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be used as an analysis tool to determine sites that may succeed as NBS.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Mubeen |first1=Adam |last2=Ruangpan |first2=Laddaporn |last3=Vojinovic |first3=Zoran |last4=Sanchez Torrez |first4=Arlex |last5=Plavšić |first5=Jasna |date=2021-08-01 |title=Planning and Suitability Assessment of Large-scale Nature-based Solutions for Flood-risk Reduction |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=3063–3081 |doi=10.1007/s11269-021-02848-w |issn=1573-1650 |s2cid=235781989 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021WatRM..35.3063M }}</ref> GIS can function in such a way that site conditions including slope gradients, water bodies, land use and soils are taken into account in analyzing for suitability.<ref name=":11" /> The resulting maps are often used in conjunction with historic flood maps to determine the potential of floodwater storage capacity on specific sites using 3D modeling tools.<ref name=":11" />

=== Projects supported by the European Union ===
Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (ThinkNature<ref>{{Cite web|title=ThinkNature {{!}} Platform for Nature-Based Solutions|url=https://www.think-nature.eu/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=ThinkNature|language=en|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905131605/https://www.think-nature.eu/|url-status=live}}</ref>) to promote the co-design, testing, and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated way.<ref name=":0" /> The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nikolaidis|first1=Nikolaos P.|last2=Kolokotsa|first2=Dionyssia|last3=Banwart|first3=Steven A.|date=16 March 2017|title=Nature-based solutions: business|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7645|pages=315|doi=10.1038/543315d|pmid=28300105|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.543..315N|doi-access=free}}</ref> The project was part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and ran for 3 years. 

In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the [[Estonia|Estonian Republic]] of the [[Council of the European Union]], a conference called "Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to Common-use" was organised by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and the [[Tallinn University|University of Tallinn]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nbs2017.eu/|title=Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=21 March 2018|archive-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015823/https://nbs2017.eu/|url-status=live}}</ref> This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS, focusing on policy and governance of NBS, research, and innovation.

== Concerns ==
The [[Indigenous Environmental Network]] has stated that "Nature-based solutions (NBS) is a greenwashing tool that does not address the root causes of climate change." and "The legacy of colonial power continues through nature-based solutions."<ref>Nam Pham, Tamra Gilbertson, Joshua Witchger, Elisa Soto-Danseco, and Tom BK Goldtooth (2022) Nature-based solutions. Indigenous Environmental Network Climate Justice Program Briefing Series</ref> For example, NBS activities can involve converting non-forest land into forest plantations (for climate change mitigation) but this carries risks of [[Climate justice|climate injustice]] through taking land away from [[Smallholding|smallholders]] and [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]].<ref>Ara Begum, R., R. Lempert, E. Ali, T.A. Benjaminsen, T. Bernauer, W. Cramer, X. Cui, K. Mach, G. Nagy, N.C. Stenseth, R. Sukumar, and P.Wester, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter01.pdf Chapter 1: Point of Departure and Key Concepts]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 121–196, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003.</ref>{{rp|163}}

However, the IPCC pointed out that the term is "the subject of ongoing debate, with concerns that it may lead to the misunderstanding that NbS on its own can provide a global solution to climate change".<ref name=":12" />{{rp|24}} To clarify this point further, the IPCC also stated that "nature-based systems cannot be regarded as an alternative to, or a reason to delay, deep cuts in [[Greenhouse gas emissions|GHG emissions]]".<ref name=":13">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 197–377, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.004.</ref>{{rp|203}}

The majority of case studies and examples of NBS are from the [[Global North and Global South|Global North]], resulting in a lack of data for many medium- and low-income nations.<ref name=":9" /> Consequently, many ecosystems and climates are excluded from existing studies as well as cost analyses in these locations. Further research needs to be conducted in the [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] to determine the efficacy of NBS on climate, social and ecological standards.

== Related concepts ==
NBS is closely related to concepts like ecosystem approaches and [[ecological engineering]].<ref name=":1" /> This includes concepts such as [[ecosystem-based adaptation]]<ref name=":13" />{{rp|284}} and [[green infrastructure]].<ref name="Benedict7">Benedict, M.A., E.T. McMahon. 2006. Green Infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Washington D.C.: Island.</ref> 

For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for [[climate change adaptation]] and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] by organisations like the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[non-governmental organisations]] such as [[The Nature Conservancy]]. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach".<ref name="Cowan3">Cowan C., C. Epple, H. Korn, R. Schliep, J. Stadler (Eds.). 2010. Working with nature to tackle climate change. Report of the ENCA/BfN Workshop on "Developing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change – Why, what and how, https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326040150/http://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf|date=26 March 2016}}". Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Ecological sanitation]]
* [[Forest restoration]]
* [[Resource recovery]]
* [[Tree planting]]
* [[Urban forestry]]
* [[Urban green space]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
'''Nature-based solutions in the context of climate change:'''
*[http://www.naturebasedsolutionsinitiative.org/ Nature-based Solutions Initiative] - interdisciplinary programme of research, education and policy advice based in the Departments of Biology and Geography at the University of Oxford
* [https://weadapt.org/knowledge-base/nature-based-solutions/an-introduction-to-nature-based-solutions/ An Introduction to Nature-based Solutions (by weADAPT)]
*Shortfilm by [[Greta Thunberg]] and [[George Monbiot]]: ''[https://www.conservation.org/video/nature-now-video-with-greta-thunberg Nature Now]'' 2020
*[https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-can-nature-based-solutions-help-address-climate-change Q&A: Can ‘nature-based solutions’ help address climate change?] by CarbonBrief. 2021.

'''Nature-based solutions in other contexts:'''
* Sustainable cities: Nature-based solutions in urban design (The Nature Conservancy): https://vimeo.com/155849692
* Video: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8YxZATAiDE Think Nature: A guide to using nature-based solutions (IUCN)] 

{{Climate change}}

[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Ecosystems]]
[[Category:Social issues]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Climate change adaptation]]