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{{Short description|Greek philosophical and theological term}}
{{philosophy sidebar}}{{For|use in anatomy|Epiphyseal plate}}{{distinguish|Physis (journal)|Physics}}
'''Physis''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|ˈ|s|ɪ|s}}; {{lang-grc|[[wikt:φύσις|φύσις]]}} {{IPA-grc|pʰýsis|}}; pl. '''physeis''', φύσεις) is a Greek [[philosophy|philosophical]], [[theology|theological]], and [[science|scientific]] term, usually translated into [[English language|English]]—according to its [[Latin language|Latin]] translation "natura"—as "[[nature (philosophy)|nature]]". The term originated in ancient [[Greek philosophy]], and was later used in [[Christian theology]] and [[Western philosophy]]. In [[pre-Socratic]] usage, ''physis'' was contrasted with {{lang|grc|νόμος}}, {{lang|la|nomos}}, "law, human convention".<ref name="contrast"/> Another opposition, particularly well-known from the works of [[Aristotle]], is that of ''physis'' and ''techne'' – in this case, what is produced and what is artificial are distinguished from beings that arise spontaneously from their own essence, as do agents such as humans.<ref>Dunshirn, Alfred (2019): Physis [English version]. In: Kirchhoff, Thomas (ed.): Online Encyclopedia Philosophy of Nature / Online Lexikon Naturphilosophie. Heidelberg University Press. https://doi.org/10.11588/oepn.2019.0.66404: p.3</ref> Further, since  [[Aristotle]] the ''physical'' (the subject matter of ''[[physics]]'', properly  {{lang|grc|τὰ φυσικά}} "natural things") has been juxtaposed to the ''[[metaphysics|metaphysical]]''.<ref>Discussed in Aristotle's works so titled, ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'' "Physis, translated since the Third Century B.C. usually as "nature" and less frequently as "essence", means one thing for the presocratic philosophers and quite another thing for Plato." Welch, Kathleen Ethel. "Keywords from Classical Rhetoric: The Example of Physis." Rhetoric Society Quarterly 17.2 (1987): 193–204. Print. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences. ''Evolving Concepts of Nature''. Proceedings of the Plenary Session, 24–28 October 2014, Acta 23, Vatican City, 2015. [http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/publications/acta/acta23.html link].</ref>

== Linguistics ==
The [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''physis'' can be considered the equivalent of the Latin ''natura''. The abstract term physis is derived from the verb ''phyesthai/phynai'', which means “to grow”, “to develop”, “to become” (Frisk 2006: 1052; Caspers 2010b: 1068). In ancient philosophy one also finds the noun "physis" referring to the growth expressed in the verb ''phyesthai/phynai'' and to the origin of development (Plato, Menexenos 237a; Aristotle, Metaphysics 1014b16–17). In terms of linguistic history, this verb is related to forms such as the English “be”, German ''sein'' or Latin ''esse'' (Lohmann 1960: 174; Pfeifer 1993: 1273; Beekes 2010: 1598). In Greek itself, the aorist (a verbal aspect) of “to be” can be expressed with forms of ''phynai''. With regard to its kinship with “being” and the basic meaning of the verb stem ''phy-'' or ''bhu-'' (“growing”), there has long been criticism of the conventional translation of the word "physis" with “nature”. With the Latin ''natura'', which for its part goes back to the verb ''nasci'' (“to be born”), one transfers the basic word "physis" into a different sphere of association. In this way, the emerging growth (of plants, for instance) is transferred into the realm of being born.<ref>For the whole passage see Dunshirn, Alfred (2019): Physis [English version]. In: Kirchhoff, Thomas (ed.): Online Encyclopedia Philosophy of Nature / Online Lexikon Naturphilosophie. Heidelberg University Press. https://doi.org/10.11588/oepn.2019.0.66404: p.1</ref>

== Greek philosophy ==
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|According to Aristotle, "physis" (nature) is dependent on "techne" (art).]]
{{main|Ancient Greek philosophy|Nature (philosophy)}}

=== Pre-Socratic usage ===
The word φύσις is a verbal noun based on [[:wikt:φύω|φύειν]] "to grow, to appear" ([[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰuH-|cognate]] with English "to be").<ref name="WDNM">{{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=Palgrave Communications |volume=6 |issue=14 |publisher=Springer Nature |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free }}</ref> In [[Homeric Greek]] it is used quite literally, of the manner of growth of a particular species of plant.<ref>''[[Odyssey]]'' 10.302-3:  {{lang|grc|ὣς ἄρα φωνήσας πόρε φάρμακον ἀργεϊφόντης ἐκ γαίης ἐρύσας, καί μοι '''φύσιν''' αὐτοῦ ἔδειξε}}. (So saying, Argeiphontes [=Hermes] gave me the herb, drawing it from the ground, and showed me its '''nature'''.) ''[[Odyssey]]''  (ed. A.T. Murray).</ref>  

In [[pre-Socratic philosophers|pre-Socratic]] philosophy, beginning with [[Heraclitus]], ''physis'' in keeping with its etymology of "growing, becoming" is always used in the sense of the "natural" ''development'', although the focus might lie either with the origin, or the process, or the end result of the process. There is some evidence that by the 6th century BC, beginning with the [[Ionian School (philosophy)|Ionian School]], the word could also be used 
in the comprehensive sense, as referring to "''all'' things", as it were "Nature" in the sense of "[[Universe]]".<ref>Gerard Naddaf, ''The Greek Concept of Nature'', SUNY Press, 2005, p. 3.
Guthrie, W. K. C., ''Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus'' (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge UP, 1965.{{page needed|date=December 2017}}
</ref>

In the [[Sophist]] tradition, the term stood in opposition to ''[[:wikt:nomos|nomos]]'' ({{lang|grc|νόμος}}), "[[law]]" or "[[convention (norm)|custom]]", in the debate on which parts of human existence are natural, and which are due to convention.<ref name="contrast">Things in, by or according to nature are {{lang|grc|φύσει}} (''physei'';  <small>[[Dative|DAT]]</small> [[Singular number|sg]] of ''physis''). Things in, by or according to law, custom or convention are {{lang|grc|νόμῳ}} (''nomōi''; <small>DAT</small> sg of ''nomos'').</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunkie |first1=Roger |title=The Classical Origins of Western Culture: The Core Studies 1 Study Guide |url=http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/studyguide/studygde.htm |access-date=30 January 2012 |series=Brooklyn College Core Curriculum Series |date=1986 |publisher=[[Brooklyn College]] |location=[[Brooklyn, NY]]  |chapter=Philosophical background of the 5th Century B.C. |chapter-url=http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/studyguide/sophists.htm }}</ref> 
The contrast of ''physis'' vs. ''[[:wikt:nomos|nomos]]'' could be applied to any subject, much like the modern contrast of "[[nature vs. nurture]]".

=== In Plato's Laws ===
In book 10 of ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'', Plato criticizes those who write works ''peri physeōs''. The criticism is that such authors tend to focus on a purely "naturalistic" explanation of the world, ignoring the role of "intention" or ''technē'', and thus becoming prone to the error of naive [[History_of_atheism#Classical_Greece_and_Rome|atheism]]. Plato accuses even [[Theogony|Hesiod]] of this, for the reason that the gods in Hesiod "grow" out of primordial entities after the physical universe had been established.<ref>Gerard Naddaf, ''The Greek Concept of Nature'' (2005), 1f.</ref>

<blockquote>Because those who use the term mean to say that nature is the first creative power; but if the soul turns out to be the primeval element, and not fire or air, then in the truest sense and beyond other things the soul may be said to exist ''by'' nature; and this would be true if you proved that the soul is older than the body, but not otherwise.
::— Plato's Laws, Book 10(892c) – ''translation by Benjamin Jowett''</blockquote>

=== Aristotle ===
Aristotle sought out the definition of "physis" to prove that there was more than one definition of "physis", and more than one way to interpret nature. "Though Aristotle retains the ancient sense of "physis" as growth, he insists that an adequate definition of "physis" requires the different perspectives of the [[four causes]] (aitia): material, efficient, formal, and final."<ref name="Rhetoric Reclaimed">Atwill, Janet. "The Interstices of Nature, Spontaneity, and Chance." Rhetoric Reclaimed: Aristotle and the Liberal Arts Tradition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1998. N. Print.</ref> Aristotle believed that nature itself contained its own source of matter (material), power/motion (efficiency), form, and end (final). A unique feature about Aristotle's definition of "physis" was his relationship between art and nature. Aristotle said that "physis" (nature) is dependent on [[techne]] (art). "The critical distinction between art and nature concerns their different efficient causes: nature is its own source of motion, whereas techne always requires a source of motion outside itself."<ref name="Rhetoric Reclaimed" /> What Aristotle was trying to bring to light, was that art does not contain within itself its form or source of motion. Consider the process of an acorn becoming an oak tree. This is a natural process that has its own driving force behind it. There is no external force pushing this acorn to its final state, rather it is progressively developing towards one specific end ([[Telos (philosophy)|telos]]).

=== Atomists ===
Quite different conceptions of "physis" are to be found in other Greek traditions of thought, e.g. the so-called Atomists, whose thinking found a continuation in the writings of [[Epicurus]]. For them, the world that appears is the result of an interplay between [[The Void (philosophy)|the void]] and the eternal movement of the “indivisible”, the [[atom|atoms]]. This doctrine, most often associated with the names [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]], is known mainly from the critical reactions to it in Aristotelian writings. It was supplemented by [[Epicurus]] in the light of developments in philosophy, in order to explain phenomena such as freedom of will. This was done by means of the theory of [[atom|atoms’]] “ability to deviate”, the parenklisis.<ref>Dunshirn, Alfred (2019): Physis [English version]. In: Kirchhoff, Thomas (ed.): Online Encyclopedia Philosophy of Nature / Online Lexikon Naturphilosophie. Heidelberg University Press. https://doi.org/10.11588/oepn.2019.0.66404: p.4</ref>

==Christian theology==
{{Christology}}
{{main|Christian theology|Christology}}

Though φύσις was often used in Hellenistic philosophy, it is used only 14 times in the New Testament (10 of those in the writings of Paul).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Balz|first1=Horst Robert|title=Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament|date=2004-01-14|url=https://archive.org/details/exegeticaldictio00balz|url-access=registration|publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]]|location=Michigan1994|isbn=9780802828033}}</ref> Its meaning varies throughout Paul's writings.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Verbrugge|first1=Verlyn D.|title=New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology|date=2000|publisher=[[Zondervan]]}}</ref> One usage refers to the established or natural order of things, as in ''Romans 2:14'' where Paul writes "For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by ''nature'' do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|2:14|ESV}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Danker|first1=Frederick W.|title=A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature|date=2014|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago}}</ref> Another use of φύσις in the sense of "natural order" is ''Romans 1:26'' where he writes "the men likewise gave up ''natural'' relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|1:26-1:27|ESV}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Danker|first1=Frederick W.|title=A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature|date=2014|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}}</ref>  In ''1 Corinthians 11:14'', Paul asks "Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears long hair it is a disgrace for him?"<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:13|ESV}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Balz|first1=Horst Robert|title=Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament|date=2004-01-14|url=https://archive.org/details/exegeticaldictio00balz|url-access=registration|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Michigan1994|isbn=9780802828033}}</ref>

This use of φύσις as referring to a "natural order" in ''Romans 1:26'' and ''1 Corinthians 11:14''  may have been influenced by [[Stoicism]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The Greek philosophers, including [[Aristotle]] and the Stoics are credited with distinguishing between man-made laws and a [[natural law]] of universal validity,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=John|title=Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World|chapter=Law of nature |date=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-280146-3 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001/acref-9780192801463-e-1250|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201165555/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192801463.001.0001/acref-9780192801463-e-1250|url-status=live|archive-date=2017-12-01|access-date=2 May 2017}}</ref> but [[Gerhard Kittel]] states that the Stoic philosophers were not able to combine the concepts of νόμος (law) and φύσις (nature) to produce the concept of "natural law" in the sense that was made possible by [[Judeo-Christian]] theology.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kittel|first1=Gerhard|title=Theological Dictionary of the New Testament|publisher=Eerdman's Publishing Company|location=Michigan}}</ref>

As part of the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline theology]] of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] by [[Grace in Christianity|grace]], Paul writes in ''Ephesians 2:3'' that "we all once lived in the passions of our flesh, carrying out the desires of the body and the mind, and were by ''nature'' children of wrath, like the rest of mankind. In the next verse he writes, "by grace you have been saved."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ephesians|2:3-2:4|ESV}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Verbrugge|first1=Verlyn D.|title=New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology|date=2000|publisher=Zondervan}}</ref>

=== Usage in patristic theology ===
{{main|Monophysitism|Miaphysitism|Dyophysitism}}
Theologians of the early Christian period differed in the usage of this term. In [[School of Antioch|Antiochene]] circles, it connoted the humanity or divinity of Christ conceived as a concrete set of characteristics or attributes. In [[Alexandrian School|Alexandrine]] thinking, it meant a concrete individual or independent existent and approximated to [[hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]] without being a synonym.<ref>Kelly, J.N.D. ''Early Christian Doctrines'' A&C Black(1965) p.318</ref>  While it refers to much the same thing as [[ousia]] it is more empirical and descriptive focussing on function while ousia is metaphysical and focuses more on reality.<ref name="GiPT">Prestige, G.L. ''God in Patristic Thought'', SPCK (1964), p.234</ref> Although found in the context of the [[Trinity|Trinitarian debate]], it is chiefly important in the [[Christology]] of [[Cyril of Alexandria]].<ref name="GiPT"/>

== Modern usage ==
The Greek adjective ''physikos'' is represented  in various forms in modern English:
As ''[[physics]]'' "the study of nature", as ''[[:wikt:physical|physical]]'' (via Middle Latin ''physicalis'') referring both to physics (the study of nature, the material universe) and to the [[human body]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=physical |title=Physical |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |last=Harper |first=Douglas |access-date=20 September 2006}}</ref> The term [[physiology]] (''physiologia'') is of 16th-century coinage ([[Jean Fernel]]). The term ''physique'', for "the bodily constitution of a person", is a 19th-century loan from French. 

In medicine the suffix ''-physis'' occurs in such compounds as ''[[symphysis]]'', ''[[epiphysis]]'', and a few others, in the sense of "a growth". The physis also refers to the "[[Epiphyseal plate|growth plate]]", or site of growth at the end of long bones.

== See also ==
{{wiktionary|φύσις}}
* [[Nature]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Essence]]
* [[Ousia]]
* [[Substance theory]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Miaphysite, not Monophysite!|journal=Cristianesimo Nella Storia|year=2016|volume=37|number=1|pages=45–52|isbn=9788815261687|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwKJDAEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Loon|first=Hans van|year=2009|title=The Dyophysite Christology of Cyril of Alexandria|place=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004173224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVDsO6IbdOYC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|title=Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes|year=1983|orig-year=1974|edition=2nd revised|location=New York|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=9780823209675|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GoVeDXMvY-8C}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|title=Imperial Unity and Christian Divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|year=1989|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=9780881410563|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Weedman|first=Mark|title=The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers|year=2007|location=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004162242|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Z8GhJl6BG8C}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Winkler|first=Dietmar W.|title=Miaphysitism: A New Term for Use in the History of Dogma and in Ecumenical Theology|journal=The Harp|year=1997|volume=10|number=3|pages=33–40|url=https://www.academia.edu/15344445}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* Dunshirn, Alfred 2019: Physis [English version]. In: Kirchhoff, Thomas (ed.): Online Encyclopedia Philosophy of Nature / Online Lexikon Naturphilosophie. Heidelberg University Press. https://doi.org/10.11588/oepn.2019.0.66404


{{ Ancient Greek  philosophical concepts}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek physics]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:New Testament Greek words and phrases]]
[[Category:Theories in ancient Greek philosophy]]