View source for Religious response to assisted reproductive technology

{{Short description|Challenges for traditional communities}}
'''Religious response to assisted reproductive technology''' deals with the new challenges for traditional social and religious communities raised by modern [[assisted reproductive technology]]. Because many religious communities have strong opinions and religious legislation regarding marriage, sex and reproduction, modern fertility technology has forced religions to respond.

==Sperm collection==
{{See also|Religious views on masturbation}}
Both for male factor testing and in order to use [[sperm]] for [[IUI|intrauterine insemination]] or [[in vitro fertilization]] the couple must first collect a sperm sample. For many religious groups this creates a challenge due to a prohibition on [[masturbation]].

==Christianity==
[[Christian denomination|Christian Churches]] have different views on the use of assisted reproductive technology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sallam |first1=H. N. |last2=Sallam |first2=N. H. |title=Religious aspects of assisted reproduction |journal=Facts, Views & Vision in ObGyn |year=2016 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=33–48 |pmc=5096425 |pmid=27822349}}</ref>

===Catholicism===
The [[Catholic Church]] opposes certain types of assisted reproductive technology and artificial [[birth control]] since they separate the procreative goal of [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church#Matrimony|marital]] sex from the goal of uniting married couples. The Catholic Church permits the use of a small number of reproductive technologies and pregnancy postponement methods like [[natural family planning]], which involves charting [[ovulation]] times.

The church allows other forms of reproductive technologies that allow conception to take place from normative [[sexual intercourse]], such as a fertility lubricant, the use of hormonal injections to grow follicles and assist in ovulation, and intrauterine insemination with sperm collected using the approved method of collection during intercourse.

More recently, some Catholic authors have seen the [[Creighton Model FertilityCare System]], a technique based on the search for the restoration of fertility as a way to obtain a natural conception, as a morally licit alternative to other assisted reproduction techniques such as IVF.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Multicultural and Interreligious Perspectives on the Ethics of Human Reproduction |last1=Lee |first1=Paul |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-86938-0 |pages=19–28 |last2=Tham |first2=Joseph |chapter=Catholic Approaches to Procreation and Infertility |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oppXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19}}</ref>

====In vitro fertilization====
[[Pope Benedict XVI]] publicly reemphasized the Catholic Church's opposition to in vitro fertilization, claiming it separates the unitive procreative actions that characterize the sexual embrace.<ref>{{Citation | newspaper = Medical news today | url = http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/38686.php | title = Pope Benedict XVI Declares Embryos Developed For In Vitro Fertilization Have Right To Life  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081229164506/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/38686.php | archive-date = 2008-12-29 }}.</ref> In addition, the church opposes in vitro fertilization because it might cause disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with a [[soul]] who must be treated as a such.<ref name=medill /> In addition, when it comes to the embryos, cryofreezing them for later use is frowned upon by the Catholic Church because it is considered immoral. 

{{Quote |This [[Natural law#Catholic natural law jurisprudence|particular doctrine]], often expounded by the [[Magisterium|magisterium of the Church]], is based on the inseparable connection, established by God, which man on his own initiative may not break, between the unitive significance and the procreative significance which are both inherent to the marriage act.

The reason is that the fundamental nature of the marriage act, while uniting husband and wife in the closest intimacy, also renders them capable of generating new life—and this as a result of laws written into the actual nature of man and of woman. And if each of these essential qualities, the unitive and the procreative, is preserved, the use of marriage fully retains its sense of true mutual love and its ordination to the supreme responsibility of parenthood to which man is called. We believe that our contemporaries are particularly capable of seeing that this teaching is in harmony with human reason.<ref name="humanae_vitae">{{cite web | location = Rome | url = https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html | title = Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth, sec 12| author = Pope Paul VI | author-link = Pope Paul VI|date= 25 July 1968|access-date= 25 November 2008|publisher = Vatican}}</ref></p>}}

According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]],
{{Quote |Techniques involving only the married couple (homologous artificial insemination and fertilization) are perhaps less reprehensible, yet remain morally unacceptable. They dissociate the sexual act from the procreative act.  The act which brings the child into existence is no longer an act by which two persons give themselves to one another, but one that "entrusts the life and identity of the embryo into the power of doctors and biologists and establishes the domination of technology over the origin and destiny of the human person. Such a relationship of domination is in itself contrary to the dignity and equality that must be common to parents and children."<ref name = "catechism">{{cite web| title = Catechism of the Catholic Church. Section 2377| url = https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P86.HTM |access-date=25 November 2008|publisher = Vatican |year= 1993 | location = Rome}}</ref>}}

The Catholic Church maintains that it is not objectively evil to be infertile, and advocates adoption as an option for such couples who still wish to have children:
{{Quote |The [[Gospel]] shows that physical sterility is not an absolute evil. Spouses who still suffer from infertility after exhausting legitimate medical procedures should unite themselves with the [[Christian cross|Lord's Cross]], the source of all spiritual [[fecundity]]. They can give expression to their generosity by adopting abandoned children or performing demanding services for others.<ref name="catechism" />}}

[[Gamete intrafallopian transfer]] (GIFT) is not technically ''in vitro'' fertilisation because with GIFT, fertilisation takes place inside the body, not on a Petri dish.<ref>{{cite web |title= Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) |url= http://www2.loras.edu/~CatholicHE/Arch/Sexuality/Gamete.html |publisher= Loras |access-date= 22 May 2012 |archive-date= 24 July 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140724163427/http://www2.loras.edu/~CatholicHE/Arch/Sexuality/Gamete.html  }}</ref> The Catholic Church nevertheless is concerned with it because "Some theologians consider this to be a replacement of the marital act, and therefore immoral."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usccb.org/prolife/programs/rlp/98rlphaa.shtml |title=Begotten Not Made: A Catholic View of Reproductive Technology |last=Haas |first=John M |work=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210153922/http://www.usccb.org/prolife/programs/rlp/98rlphaa.shtml |archive-date=February 10, 2007 }}</ref>

=== Lutheranism ===
The [[Lutheran Council in the United States of America]], organized by the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] and parent bodies of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], produced an authoritative document on the issue of in-vitro fertilisation, which "unanimously concluded that in vitro fertilization does not ''in and of itself'' violate the will of God as reflected in the Bible, when the wife's egg and husband's sperm are used" (LCUSA n.d.:31).<ref name="AbbottNelson2002">{{cite web |author1=Deborah Abbott |author2=Paul Nelson |title=The Lutheran Tradition: Religious Beliefs and Healthcare Decisions |url=https://www.advocatehealth.com/assets/documents/faith/lutheranfinal.pdf |publisher=Park Ridge Center for the Study of Health, Faith, and Ethics |page=9 |language=English |date=2002}}</ref>

The Lutheran Churches approve of artificial insemination by a husband (AIH), though representatives from the [[Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod]] hold that such IVF is only unobjectionable if the sperm and egg come from husband and wife and all of the fertilized eggs are implanted in the womb of the wife.<ref name="AbbottNelson2002"/> With regard to artificial insemination by a donor (AID), the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America teaches that it is a "cause for moral concern", while the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] rejects it.<ref name="AbbottNelson2002"/>

=== Anglicanism ===
The [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] approved the use of in vitro fertilisation in its General Convention in 1982; though it approved artificial insemination by a husband (AIH), in the General Convention of 1988 it declared "artificial insemination by donor problematic".<ref name="Cohen2002">{{cite web |author=Deborah Abbott |author2=Paul Nelson |title=The Episcopal Tradition: Religious Beliefs and Healthcare Decisions |url=https://www.advocatehealth.com/assets/documents/faith/episcopal_tradition.pdf |publisher=e Park Ridge Center for the Study of Health, Faith, and Ethics |access-date=9 February 2021 |page=8 |language=English |date=2002}}</ref>

=== Methodism ===
For couples considering in-vitro fertilisation, the [[United Methodist Church]] in its ''Book of Resolutions'' states:<ref name="UMC2016">{{cite web |title=Ethics of Embryonic Stem Cell Research |url=http://ee.umc.org/what-we-believe/ethics-of-embryonic-stem-cell-research |publisher=[[The United Methodist Church]] |access-date=9 February 2021 |language=English |date=2016}}</ref>
{{quotation|
*We call for rigorous standards of informed consent regarding the procedures, the physical and emotional risks, and the associated ethical issues be applied to all reproductive technologies.

*We urge clinicians and couples to make the determination of how many eggs to fertilize and implant on a case-by-case basis.<ref name="UMC2016"/>}}

With regard to the remaining embryos after in vitro fertilization procedures, the United Methodist Church teaches:<ref name="UMC2016"/>
{{quotation|The United Methodist Church supports persons who wish to enhance medical research by donating their early embryos remaining after in vitro fertilization procedures have ended, and urges national governments to pass legislation that would authorize funding for derivation of and medical research on human embryonic stem cells that were generated from in vitro fertilization embryos and remain after fertilization procedures have been concluded, provided that:

1. these early embryos are no longer required for procreation by those donating them and would simply be discarded;

2. those donating early embryos have given their prior informed consent to their use in stem cell research;

3. the embryos were not deliberately created for research purposes; and

4. the embryos were not obtained by sale or purchase.

National health agencies are urged to establish an interdisciplinary oversight body for all research in both the public and private sectors that involves stem cells from human embryos, adult stem cells that have been made pluripotent, parthenotes, sperm cells, or egg cells, and cells that produce sperm or eggs.<ref name="UMC2016"/>}}

=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] policy states: 
:"The pattern of a husband and wife providing bodies for God's spirit children is divinely appointed (see 2.1.3). When needed, reproductive technology can assist a married woman and man in their righteous desire to have children. This technology includes artificial insemination and in vitro fertilization.
:"The Church discourages artificial insemination or in vitro fertilization using sperm from anyone but the husband or an egg from anyone but the wife. However, this is a personal matter that is ultimately left to the judgment and prayerful consideration of a lawfully married man and woman."<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/general-handbook/38-church-policies-and-guidelines?id=p2307-p2308&lang=eng#p2307 Church Policies and Guidelines, 38.6.9], accessed 02 Jan 2023</ref>

==Hinduism==
Hinduism is generally tolerant of assisted reproductive technology, but with the expectation that sperm cells and eggs should come from a married couple, or from close relatives in cases of infertility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sallam |first1=H. N. |last2=Sallam |first2=N. H. |date=2016-03-28 |title=Religious aspects of assisted reproduction |journal=Facts, Views & Vision in ObGyn |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=33–48 |pmc=5096425 |pmid=27822349}}</ref> 

There are several [[Hindu|Hindus]] who have been claimed to be born without intercourse including [[Karna]] and Five [[Pandava|Pandavas]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Science in hinduism-Test tube babies | url = http://www.mallstuffs.com/Blogs/BlogDetails.aspx?BlogId=333&BlogType=Spiritual&Topic=Science%20in%20hinduism-Test%20tube%20babies |access-date=30 May 2016|date= Oct 20, 2013 }}</ref>

==Islam==
The Islamic community, after the [[fatwa]] on [[assisted reproductive technology]] by [[Gad al-Haq]] of Egypt's [[Al-Azhar University]], largely accepted assisted reproductive technology.{{Sfn | Inhorn | 2006}}

In vitro fertilization and similar technologies are permissible as long as they do not involve any form of third-party donation (of sperm, eggs, embryos, or uteruses). Regarding third-party donation there is a debate between [[Sunni Islam]] and [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] Islam. Sunnis, following the al-Azhar fatwa, does not allow third-party donations. In 1999, [[Ali Khamenei]], the authority for his followers, issued a fatwa stating that it was permitted to use third-party donors.<ref>{{Citation | publisher = My virtual paper | url = http://www.myvirtualpaper.com/doc/Conceive-Magazine/Winter-2008/2008120301/59.html | title = Faith & Fertility | first = Jan | last = Goodwin | journal = Conceive | date = Winter 2008  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090621054742/http://www.myvirtualpaper.com/doc/Conceive-Magazine/Winter-2008/2008120301/59.html | archive-date = 2009-06-21 }}.</ref>

The conclusions of Gad al-Haq's assisted reproductive technology fatwa are as follows:{{Sfn | Inhorn | 2006}}
# Artificial insemination with the husband's semen is allowed, and the resulting child is the legal offspring of the couple.
#In vitro fertilization of an egg from the wife with the sperm of her husband and the transfer of the fertilized egg back to the uterus of the wife is allowed, provided that the procedure is indicated for a medical reason and is carried out by an expert physician.
#Since marriage is a contract between the wife and husband during the span of their marriage, no third party should intrude into the marital functions of sex and procreation. This means that a third party donor is not acceptable, whether he or she is providing sperm, eggs, embryos, or a uterus. The use of a third party is tantamount to ''zina'', or [[adultery]].
#Adoption of a child from an illegitimate form of medically assisted conception is not allowed. The child who results from a forbidden method belongs to the mother who delivered him/her. He or she is considered to be a {{transl|ar|laqid}}, or an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate child]].
#If the marriage contract has come to an end because of divorce or death of the husband, medically assisted conception cannot be performed on the ex-wife even if the sperm comes from the former husband.
#An excess number of embryos can be preserved by [[cryopreservation]]. The frozen embryos are the property of the couple alone and may be transferred to the same wife in a successive cycle, but only during the duration of the marriage contract. [[Embryo donation]] is prohibited.<ref name=medill/>
#[[Selective reduction]] is only allowed if the prospect of carrying the pregnancy to viability is very small. It is also allowed if the health or life of the mother is in jeopardy.
#All forms of surrogacy are forbidden.
#Establishment of sperm banks with "selective" semen threatens the existence of the family and the "race" and should be prevented.
#The physician is the only qualified person to practice medically assisted conception in all its permitted varieties. If he performs any of the forbidden techniques, he is guilty, his earnings are forbidden, and he must be stopped from his morally illicit practice.

==Judaism==

Defining Jewish views on assisted reproductive technology based solely on branches of [[Judaism]] is problematic since there is substantial overlap in opinions and [[moral authority]].<ref name=medill>{{cite web |url= http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=136743 |title= Reconciling religion and infertility |last= Dain |first= Alina |date= January 14, 2019 |website= [[Medill School of Journalism]] |access-date= January 14, 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131104194217/http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=136743 |archive-date = November 4, 2013}}</ref>

===Orthodox Judaism===
Within the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] community the concept is debated as there is little precedent in traditional Jewish legal textual sources. Non-legal sources such as [[medrash]] and [[aggadah]] provide stories that have been used to draw conclusions regarding assisted reproductive technology by modern Jewish [[Posek|legal decisors]]. In general, traditional Judaism views medical intervention positively.<ref>[[Shulchan Aruch]], Yoreh Deah 336: 1</ref> Regarding assisted reproductive technology, the positive view of medicine is challenged by the Jewish religious legal system which has numerous laws regarding modesty and sexuality and a strong emphasis on verifiable lineage.

In Orthodox Judaism, insemination with the husband's sperm is permissible if the wife cannot become pregnant in any other way.<ref name=medill/>

Regarding [[Judaism and sexuality|laws of sexuality]], religious challenges include [[masturbation]] (which may be regarded as "seed wasting"<ref name=medill/>), laws related to sexual activity and menstruation ([[niddah]]) and the specific laws regarding intercourse. Additional issues arise regarding the restrictions of the Sabbath ([[Shabbat]]) and [[Jewish holidays]].

An additional major issue is that of establishing paternity and lineage. For a baby conceived naturally, the father's identity is determined by a legal presumption ([[chazakah]]) of legitimacy: ''rov bi'ot achar ha'baal'' - a woman's [[Human sexual behavior|sexual relations]] are assumed to be with her husband. Regarding an in vitro fertilization child, this assumption does not exist and as such Rabbi [[Eliezer Waldenberg]] (among others) requires an outside supervisor to positively identify the father.<ref>Tzitz Eliezer 9, p. 247.</ref> Doctors or laboratory workers present at the time of the fertility treatment are not considered supervisors due to a [[conflict of interest]] and their pre-occupation with their work.<ref>Rav [[Yosef Sholom Eliashiv|Sholom Eliashiv]]: "Even if I were to be the lab worker I couldn't be a valid witness for this matter".</ref>

As such, supervisory services are required for all treatments involving lab manipulation or [[cryopreservation]] of sperm, ovum or embryos.

While a range of views exist, both [[egg donation]] and [[surrogacy]] are permitted according to many Orthodox decisors, pending [[Puah Institute#Supervision Services|religious fertility supervision]].<ref name=medill/><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3721194,00.html Haredi widow to become surrogate mother.] Nissan Shtrauchler, Yediot Acharonot</ref> (In Israel, the "[[Surrogacy laws by country#Israel|Embryo Carrying Agreements Law]]" was formulated to ensure that surrogacy agreements between Jewish Israelis do not conflict with [[halacha|Jewish laws]] concerning incest and adultery and that the child born of the arrangement will be recognized as a Jew.)<ref>Teman, Elly. 2010. [http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/11401.php Birthing a Mother: the Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self.] Berkeley: University of California Press. See also Kahn, Susan Martha. 2000. Reproducing Jews: A Cultural Account of Assisted Conception in Israel. Durham: Duke University Press.</ref>

Those interested are recommended to contact their local Orthodox or Hasidic Rabbi, as these laws are obviously complicated, and as is customary.

===Conservative Judaism===

The official [[halachic]] legal authority for American [[Conservative Judaism]] is the [http://Rabbinical%20Assembly Rabbinical Assembly's]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]. They vote on proposed responsa. A responsa may be approved by either a majority or a minority vote, and individual Rabbis may rely on even minority-approved responsa for their rulings.

Artificial insemination: AI is not typically allowed because it calls into question a variety of Jewish Laws regarding incest, adultery, and lineage. In fact, there are some Rabbis who work closely with fertilization clinics so that they can supervise all genetic material. The sperm donor is considered the father for purposes of determining the child's tribal status and for issues of ritual consanguinity, therefore, the use of anonymous donors is strongly discouraged. When it comes to adultery, there is the possibility that a man could have made multiple sperm donations. That leaves room for half-siblings to potentially meet and marry which would violate the Jewish incest laws. Lastly, you have the adultery claims. If a woman uses sperm from a man that is not her husband, some consider this to be adultery. Others, however, don't see this as an issue because both members of the couple consent to the use of third party sperm donation.<ref name="DorffTeshuva">Dorff, Rabbi Elliott. "[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/dorff_artificial.pdf?phpMyAdmin=G0Is7ZE%2CH7O%2Ct%2CZ1sDHpI8UAVD6 Artificial Insemination, Egg Donation, and Adoption]," Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Rabbinical Assembly. Approved 20 in favor, 1 abstention, in 1994</ref>
 
Egg donation/Surrogacy: Surrogacy and egg donation are permissible and the birth mother, rather than the genetic mother, is considered the mother of the child, therefore conversion may be necessary if a non-Jewish woman acts as a gestational surrogate. A maximum of 3 embryos may be implanted at a time. Freezing and donation of embryos is permitted.<ref name="DorffTeshuva" /><ref name="MacklerTeshuva">Mackler, Rabbi Aaron L. "[http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/19912000/mackler_ivf.pdf?phpMyAdmin=G0Is7ZE%2CH7O%2Ct%2CZ1sDHpI8UAVD6 In Vitro Fertilization]," Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Rabbinical Assembly. Approved 20 in favor, 1 abstention, in 1995.</ref>

The Conservative movement's position on "family purity" practices, reducing the amount of time after a woman's period during which she is prohibited to have sex, may also work as a pro-fertility measure. As part of its treatment of [[Niddah|Tohorat HaMishpahah]], the Conservative Assembly in 2006 accepted a position of eliminating the requirement for seven white days after the cessation of menses and establishing this as an optional custom. This is offered as a solution for women dealing with ovulation before mikvah by reducing the number of days with sexual relations being forbidden from an average of 12 to 5.<ref name="Grossman">{{cite journal|last=Grossman|first=Susan|date=September 13, 2006|title=Mikveh And The Sanctity Of Being Created Human|url=https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/public/halakhah/teshuvot/20052010/grossman_niddah.pdf}}</ref> Mid-cycle staining during ovulation, while ordinarily would prevent sexual relations by being considered ''[[zavah]]'', is to be considered a result of ancillary circumstances (diet, medical treatment, physical exertion, or illness) and as such the emission is considered permissible, and the woman would not become a zavah.<ref name="Grossman" /> Drug therapies to avoid mid-cycle staining are deemed unnecessary with the risks of the drug side-effects outweighing the prohibition of zavah due to the commandment of ''hai bahem'', ("[you shall] live by them").<ref name="Grossman" />

===Other movements===
[[Reform Judaism]] has generally approved [[artificial insemination by donor]], [[in-vitro fertilization]] and [[surrogate pregnancy|surrogate]] motherhood.<ref name=medill/>

==See also==
* [[A T.I.M.E.]]
* [[Bonei Olam]]
* [[Donum Vitae]]
* [[Puah Institute]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Citation | url = http://vlex.com/vid/fatwas-ivf-gamete-sunni-shia-islam-418643 | last = Inhorn | first = MC | title = Making Muslim babies: IVF and gamete donation in Sunni versus Shi'a Islam | journal = Cult Med Psychiatry | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 427–50 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17051430 | pmc = 1705533 | doi = 10.1007/s11013-006-9027-x | access-date = 2009-06-08 | archive-date = 2009-06-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090624121701/http://vlex.com/vid/fatwas-ivf-gamete-sunni-shia-islam-418643 | url-status = dead }}.

==External links==
* {{Citation | url = http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/2/245.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100216074538/http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/2/245.pdf  | archive-date = 2010-02-16 | journal = Hum Reprod | publisher = Oxford journals | title = Post-coital sperm retrieval could lead to the wider approval of assisted conception by some religions | first = Anthony | last = Hirsh | type = reprint}}.

{{Assisted reproductive technology}}
{{Reproductive health}}
{{Sex}}

[[Category:Sexuality and religion|Assisted Reproductive Technology]]
[[Category:Assisted reproductive technology]]
[[Category:Kinship and descent]]
[[Category:Cultural anthropology]]