View source for Renewable energy commercialization

{{Short description|Deployment of technologies harnessing easily replenished natural resources}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Update|date=February 2019}}
{{cleanup|reason=Lots of trivia and promotional language|date=October 2019}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
[[File:20210119 Renewable energy investment - 2004- BloombergNEF.svg|thumb|upright=1.35| Investment: Companies, governments and households have been committing increasing amounts to decarbonization, including renewable energy (solar, wind), electric vehicles and associated charging infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20210119>{{cite news |title=Energy Transition Investment Hit $500 Billion in 2020 – For First Time |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-hit-500-billion-in-2020-for-first-time/ |work=BloombergNEF |publisher=(Bloomberg New Energy Finance) |date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119134344/https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-transition-investment-hit-500-billion-in-2020-for-first-time/ |archive-date=19 January 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=BloombergNEF_20230126>{{cite news |last1=Catsaros |first1=Oktavia |title=Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |publisher=Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance) |date=26 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522001857/https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-low-carbon-energy-technology-investment-surges-past-1-trillion-for-the-first-time/ |archive-date=22 May 2023 |at=Figure 1 |quote=Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:20201019 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE, Lazard) - renewable energy.svg|thumb|upright=1.35| Cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, [[Levelized cost of energy|costs]] have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.<ref name=PopSciLazard_LCOE2020>{{cite magazine |last1=Chrobak |first1=Ula |others=Infographic by Sara Chodosh |title=Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more? |url=https://www.popsci.com/story/environment/cheap-renewable-energy-vs-fossil-fuels/ |magazine=Popular Science |date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129144621/https://www.popsci.com/story/environment/cheap-renewable-energy-vs-fossil-fuels/ |archive-date=29 January 2021 |url-status=live }} ● Chodosh's graphic is derived from data in {{cite web |title=Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14.0 |url=https://www.lazard.com/media/451419/lazards-levelized-cost-of-energy-version-140.pdf |website=Lazard.com |publisher=Lazard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128105700/https://www.lazard.com/media/451419/lazards-levelized-cost-of-energy-version-140.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2021 |date=19 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=LazardLCOE_20230412>{{cite web |title=2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+ |url=https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/2023-levelized-cost-of-energyplus/ |publisher=Lazard |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230827132200/https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/2023-levelized-cost-of-energyplus/ |archive-date=27 August 2023 |page=9 |date=12 April 2023 |url-status=live}} (Download link labeled "Lazard's LCOE+ (April 2023) (1) PDF—1MB")</ref><br/>[[Levelized cost of energy]] (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.]]

{{Sustainable energy}}
'''Renewable energy commercialization''' involves the [[Diffusion of innovations|deployment]] of three generations of [[renewable energy]] technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include [[biomass]], [[hydroelectricity]], [[geothermal power]] and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include [[solar heating]], [[photovoltaics]], [[wind power]], [[List of solar thermal power stations|solar thermal power stations]], and modern forms of [[bioenergy]]. Third-generation technologies require continued [[R&D]] efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced [[biomass gasification]], [[hot-dry-rock]] geothermal power, and [[ocean energy]].<ref name="IEA">[[International Energy Agency]] (2007). [https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/renewable_factsheet.pdf ''Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet'' (PDF)] OECD, 34 pages.</ref> In 2019, nearly 75% of new installed electricity generation capacity used renewable energy<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |last2= |first2= |date=2020-04-06 |title=New renewable energy capacity hit record levels in 2019 |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/06/new-renewable-energy-capacity-hit-record-levels-in-2019 |access-date=2023-10-22 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) has predicted that by 2025, renewable capacity will meet 35% of global power generation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ellerbeck |first=Stefan |date=2023-03-16 |title=IEA: More than a third of the world's electricity will come from renewables in 2025 |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/03/electricity-generation-renewables-power-iea/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref>

[[Public policy]] and political leadership helps to "level the playing field" and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies.<ref name="renewableenergyfocus.com">Donald W. Aitken. [http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/download/165 Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future], [[International Solar Energy Society]], January 2010, p. 3.</ref><ref name="map.ren21.net"/><ref name=ren212011>{{cite web|url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |title=Renewables 2011: Global Status Report |author=REN21 |year=2011 |pages=11–13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905003859/http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |archive-date=5 September 2011 |df=dmy |author-link=REN21 }}</ref> Countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade. As of 2014, Germany has a commitment to the "[[Energiewende]]" transition to a sustainable energy economy, and Denmark has a commitment to [[100% renewable energy]] by 2050. There are now 144 countries with renewable [[energy policy]] targets.

Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015, providing multiple benefits. There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity (64GW and 57GW) and a new high of US$329 Billion for global renewables investment. A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs.<ref>Editorial, [http://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201611 Green Gold], ''Nature Energy'', 2016.</ref> The top countries for investment in recent years were China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil.<ref name="map.ren21.net">REN21 (2012). [http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf Renewables Global Status Report 2012] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215215616/http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf |date=15 December 2012 }} p. 17.</ref><ref name="REN21 2011 35">{{cite web|url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |title=Renewables 2011: Global Status Report |author=REN21 |year=2011 |page=35 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905003859/http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/GSR2011_Master18.pdf |archive-date=5 September 2011 |df=dmy |author-link=REN21 }}</ref> Renewable energy companies include [[BrightSource Energy]], [[First Solar]], [[Gamesa Corporación Tecnológica|Gamesa]], [[GE Energy]], [[Goldwind]], [[Sinovel]], [[Targray]], [[Trina Solar]], [[Vestas]], and [[Yingli]].<ref name=top>Top of the list, ''Renewable Energy World'', 2 January 2006.</ref><ref name=keith>Keith Johnson, [https://blogs.wsj.com/environmentalcapital/2009/03/25/wind-shear-ge-wins-vestas-loses-in-wind-power-market-race/ Wind Shear: GE Wins, Vestas Loses in Wind-Power Market Race], ''Wall Street Journal'', 25 March 2009, accessed on 7 January 2010.</ref>

[[Global warming|Climate change concerns]]<ref name=ieapress>International Energy Agency. [http://www.iea.org/Textbase/press/pressdetail.asp?PRESS_REL_ID=271 IEA urges governments to adopt effective policies based on key design principles to accelerate the exploitation of the large potential for renewable energy] 29 September 2008.</ref><ref name=UNEP2>[[REN21]] (2006).  [http://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/art/2006_120_report.pdf ''Changing climates: The Role of Renewable Energy in a Carbon-constrained World'' (PDF)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611182411/http://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/art/2006_120_report.pdf |date=11 June 2007 }} p. 2.</ref><ref name=Stern>HM Treasury (2006). ''Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change''.</ref> are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries.<ref name=UNnews>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=24982&Cr=climate New UN report points to power of renewable energy to mitigate carbon emissions] ''UN News Centre'', 8 December 2007.</ref><ref name=mak>[[Joel Makower]], [[Ron Pernick]] and [[Clint Wilder]] (2008). [http://www.cleanedge.com/reports/pdf/Trends2008.pdf ''Clean Energy Trends 2008''], [[Clean Edge]], p. 2.</ref> According to a 2011 projection by the IEA, solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, reducing harmful [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref name=ieaiea2011>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-08-29/solar-may-produce-most-of-world-s-power-by-2060-iea-says.html |title=Solar May Produce Most of World's Power by 2060, IEA Says |author=Ben Sills |date= 29 August 2011 |work=Bloomberg }}</ref>

== Background ==
[[File:Global public support for energy sources (Ipsos 2011).png|thumb|upright=1.6|right|alt=refer to caption and image description|Global public support for energy sources, based on a survey by [[Ipsos]] (2011)<ref name="ipsos 2011 preference for renewables">
{{cite web |author=Ipsos Global @dvisor |title=Global Citizen Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Plant Disaster |date=23 June 2011 |url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/Assets/Docs/Polls/ipsos-global-advisor-nuclear-power-june-2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203023159/http://www.ipsos-mori.com/Assets/Docs/Polls/ipsos-global-advisor-nuclear-power-june-2011.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2011 |page=3 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}
</ref>]]

=== Rationale for renewables ===
[[Climate change]], pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures.<ref name=WWS2010>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/JDEnPolicyPt1.pdf
|title=Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials |author1=Jacobson, Mark Z.  |author2=Delucchi, Mark A.  |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |work=Energy Policy }}</ref> [[Renewable energy]] technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to [[energy security|world energy security]], reduce dependency on [[fossil fuel]]s, and some also provide opportunities for mitigating [[greenhouse gases]].<ref name="IEA" /> Climate-disrupting [[fossil fuels]] are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy:
<blockquote>
{{clear}}
...the transition from coal, oil, and gas to wind, solar, and geothermal energy is well under way. In the old economy, energy was produced by burning something — oil, coal, or natural gas — leading to the carbon emissions that have come to define our economy. The new energy economy harnesses the energy in wind, the energy coming from the sun, and heat from within the earth itself.<ref>[[Lester R. Brown]]. ''Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'', [[Earth Policy Institute]], 2009, p. 135.</ref>
</blockquote>

In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for a variety of methods for addressing the problem of energy supply. These methods include promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power, requiring utilities to use more renewable energy, and providing tax incentives to encourage the development and use of such technologies. It is expected that renewable energy investments will pay off economically in the long term.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/public_opinion |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20091129013111/http://www.cfr.org/public_opinion |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 November 2009 |title=Public Opinion on Global Issues: Chapter 5b: World Opinion on Energy Security |author=Council on Foreign Relations |date=18 January 2012 |author-link=Council on Foreign Relations }}</ref>

EU member countries have shown support for ambitious renewable energy goals. In 2010, [[Eurobarometer]] polled the twenty-seven EU member states about the target "to increase the share of renewable energy in the EU by 20 percent by 2020". Most people in all twenty-seven countries either approved of the target or called for it to go further. Across the EU, 57 percent thought the proposed goal was "about right" and 16 percent thought it was "too modest." In comparison, 19 percent said it was "too ambitious".<ref name="worldpublicopinion.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/btenvironmentra/707.php |title=Large Majorities in US and Europe Endorse Focus on Renewable Energy |date=18 January 2012 |work=World Public Opinion |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315003300/http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/btenvironmentra/707.php |archive-date=15 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

As of 2011, new evidence has emerged that there are considerable risks associated with traditional energy sources, and that major changes to the mix of energy technologies is needed: 
<blockquote>
Several mining tragedies globally have underscored the human toll of the coal supply chain. New EPA initiatives targeting air toxics, coal ash, and effluent releases highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of addressing them with control technologies. The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is coming under scrutiny, with evidence of groundwater contamination and greenhouse gas emissions. Concerns are increasing about the vast amounts of water used at coal-fired and nuclear power plants, particularly in regions of the country facing water shortages. Events at the [[Fukushima nuclear disaster|Fukushima nuclear plant]] have renewed doubts about the ability to operate large numbers of nuclear plants safely over the long term. Further, cost estimates for "next generation" nuclear units continue to climb, and lenders are unwilling to finance these plants without taxpayer guarantees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.civilsocietyinstitute.org/media/pdfs/Toward%20a%20Sustainable%20Future%2011-16-11.pdf |title=Toward a Sustainable Future for the U.S. Power Sector: Beyond Business as Usual 2011 |author=Synapse Energy Economics |date=16 November 2011 }}</ref>
</blockquote>

The 2014 [[REN21]] Global Status Report says that renewable energies are no longer just energy sources, but ways to address pressing social, political, economic and environmental problems:
<blockquote>
Today, renewables are seen not only as sources of energy, but also as tools to address many other pressing needs, including: improving energy security; reducing the health and environmental impacts associated with fossil and nuclear energy; mitigating greenhouse gas emissions; improving educational opportunities; creating jobs; reducing poverty; and increasing gender equality... Renewables have entered the mainstream.<ref>{{cite book |url= http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR/2014/GSR2014_full%20report_low%20res.pdf  |title= Renewables 2014 Global Status Report |author=REN21 |date=2014 |work=(Paris: REN21 Secretariat) |isbn=978-3-9815934-2-6 |author-link= REN21 }}</ref>
</blockquote>

===Growth of renewables===
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| image1            = 2011- Renewable energy capacity - International Energy Agency.svg
| caption1          = Renewable energy capacity has steadily grown, led by [[Photovoltaic system|solar photovoltaic]] power.<ref name=IEA_202306>Source for data beginning in 2017: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update Outlook for 2023 and 2024 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711115355/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/63c14514-6833-4cd8-ac53-f9918c2e4cd9/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate_June2023.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2023 |page=19 |date=June 2023 |quote=IEA. CC BY 4.0. |url-status=live}} ● Source for data through 2016: {{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Market Update / Outlook for 2021 and 2022 |url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |website=IEA.org |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325084025/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/18a6041d-bf13-4667-a4c2-8fc008974008/RenewableEnergyMarketUpdate-Outlookfor2021and2022.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2023 |page=8 |date=May 2021 |url-status=live |quote=IEA. Licence: CC BY 4.0 }}</ref>
}}
{{multiple image |align=right | total_width= 450
| image1=2015- Clean energy vs fossil fuel investment - IEA.svg |caption1=Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.<ref name=IEA_20230525>{{cite web |title=World Energy Investment 2023 / Overview and key findings |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531004551/https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-investment-2023/overview-and-key-findings |archive-date=31 May 2023 |date=25 May 2023 |quote=Global energy investment in clean energy and in fossil fuels, 2015-2023 (chart) |url-status=live}} — From pages 8 and 12 of [https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf ''World Energy Investment 2023''] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230531003621/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8834d3af-af60-4df0-9643-72e2684f7221/WorldEnergyInvestment2023.pdf archive]).</ref>

| image2= 20211104 Percentage of electricity from fossil fuels, nuclear, renewables - biggest fossil fuel emitters.svg |caption2= The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.<ref name=BP-Ember_20211103>{{cite web |author1=Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate |title=Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020 |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/elec-mix-bar |website=OurWorldInData.org |publisher=Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103100119/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/elec-mix-bar |archive-date=3 November 2021 |date=3 November 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States, demonstrating a "fundamental transition" of the world's energy markets towards renewables, according to a report released by [[REN21]], a global renewable [[energy policy]] network based in Paris.<ref name=Mart>[[Eric Martinot]] and Janet Sawin. [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/09/renewables-global-status-report-2009-update Renewables Global Status Report 2009 Update], ''Renewable Energy World'', 9 September 2009.</ref> In 2010, renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.<ref name="UNEP_GT_2011_Fig24">[http://www.fs-unep-centre.org/publications/global-trends-renewable-energy-investment-2011 UNEP, Bloomberg, Frankfurt School, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101180801/http://fs-unep-centre.org/publications/global-trends-renewable-energy-investment-2011 |date=1 November 2011 }}、Figure 24.</ref>

By the end of 2011, total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded 1,360 GW, up 8%. Renewables producing electricity accounted for almost half of the 208 GW of capacity added globally during 2011. Wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) accounted for almost 40% and 30%.<ref name="ReferenceA">[http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf  Renewables 2012 Global status report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215215616/http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf |date=15 December 2012 }} Executive summary REN21</ref> Based on [[REN21]]'s 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.<ref name="ria21-GSR2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR/2014/GSR2014_full%20report_low%20res.pdf |title=Renewables 2014: Global Status Report |author=REN21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915214208/http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR/2014/GSR2014_full%20report_low%20res.pdf |archive-date=15 September 2014 |year=2014 |pages=13, 17, 21, 25 |url-status=dead |df=dmy |author-link=REN21 }}</ref>

During the five-years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies, while actual production grew 1.2% overall.<ref>http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/media/sefi2011finallowres.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116082749/http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/media/sefi2011finallowres.pdf |date=16 November 2013 }} pg25graph</ref><ref name=ren15>[[REN21]] (2010). [http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf Renewables 2010 Global Status Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416031610/http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR_2010_full_revised%20Sept2010.pdf |date=16 April 2012 }} p. 15.</ref> In 2011, UN under-secretary general [[Achim Steiner]] said: "The continuing growth in this core segment of the [[green economy]] is not happening by chance. The combination of government target-setting, policy support and stimulus funds is underpinning the renewable industry's rise and bringing the much needed transformation of our global energy system within reach." He added: "Renewable energies are expanding both in terms of investment, projects and geographical spread. In doing so, they are making an increasing contribution to combating climate change, countering energy poverty and energy insecurity".<ref name=invest2011/>

According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power plants may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, significantly reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment. The IEA has said: "Photovoltaic and solar-thermal plants may meet most of the world's demand for electricity by 2060 – and half of all energy needs – with wind, hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation". "Photovoltaic and concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity".<ref name="ieaiea2011"/>

{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; "
|-
! Selected renewable energy global indicators !! 2008 !! 2009 !! 2010 !! 2011 !! 2012 || 2013 !! 2014 !! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 !! 2019 !! 2020
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: left" | Investment
|-
| align=left | Investment in new renewable capacity <br /> (annual) (billion USD) || 182 || 178 || 237 || 279 || 256 || 232 || 270 || 285.9 || 241.6 || 279.8 || 289 || 302 || 304
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: left" | Power
|-
| align=left | Renewables power capacity (existing) (GWe) || 1,140 || 1,230 || 1,320 || 1,360 || 1,470 || 1,578 || 1,712 || 1,849 || 2,017 || 2,195 || 2,378 || 2,588 || 2,839
|-
| align=left | Hydropower capacity (existing) (GWe) || 885 || 915 || 945 || 970 || 990 || 1,018 || 1,055 || 1,064 || 1,096 || 1,114 || 1,132 || 1,150 || 1,170
|-
| align=left | Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) (GWe) || 16 || 23 || 40 || 70 || 100 || 138 || 177 || 227 || 303 || 402 || 505 || 627 || 760
|-
| align=left | Wind power capacity (existing) (GWe) || 121 || 159 || 198 || 238 || 283 || 319 || 370 || 433 || 487 || 539 || 591 || 651 || 743
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: left" | Heat
|-
| align=left | Solar hot water capacity (existing) <br /> (2008-2018 GW<sub>th</sub>, 2019-2020 EJ) || 130 || 160 || 185 || 232 || 255 || 373 || 406 || 435 || 456 || 472 || 480 GW<sub>th</sub> <br /> (1.4 EJ{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2020|p=35}}) || 1.4 || 1.5
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: left" | Transport
|-
| align=left | Ethanol production (annual) (billion litres) || 67 || 76 || 86 || 86 || 83 ||87 ||94 || 98.8 || 98.6 || 106 || 112 || 114 || 105
|-
| align=left | Biodiesel production, fatty  acid  methyl ester <br /> (annual) (billion litres) || 12 || 17.8 || 18.5 || 21.4 || 22.5 ||26 || 29.7 || 30.1 || 30.8 || 31 || 34 || 47 || 39
|-
! colspan="14" style="text-align: left" | Policy
|-
| align=left | Countries with renewable energy targets || 79 || 89 || 98 || 118 || 138 ||144 ||164 ||173 || 176 || 179 || 169 || 172 || 165
|-
! colspan="14" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: left; padding: 6px 0 4px 4px;" | ''Source:'' REN21{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2009}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2010}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2011}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2012}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2013}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2014}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2015}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2016|p=19}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2017|p=21}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2018|p=19}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2019|p=19}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2020|p=35}}{{sfn|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2021|p=40}}
|}

In 2013, China led the world in [[renewable energy]] production, with a total capacity of 378 [[Gigawatt|GW]], mainly from [[hydroelectric]] and [[wind power]]. As of 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power, [[solar power|solar photovoltaic power]] and [[smart grid]] technologies, generating almost as much water, wind and [[solar energy]] as all of France and Germany's power plants combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its [[fossil fuels]] and [[nuclear power]] capacity. Since 2005, production of [[solar cells]] in China has expanded 100-fold. As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown, the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion.<ref name=chinaen>{{cite journal |title=Economics: Manufacture renewables to build energy security |author1=John A. Mathews  |author2=Hao Tan  |name-list-style=amp |date=10 September 2014 |journal=Nature |volume=513 |issue=7517 |pages=166–168 |doi=10.1038/513166a |pmid=25209783 |bibcode=2014Natur.513..166M |s2cid=4459313 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

See also [[renewable energy in the United States]] for US-figures.

===Economic trends===
[[File:2010- Cost of renewable energy - IRENA.svg|thumb|upright=1.5 | Costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly,<ref name=IRENArenewableCostsFor_2022>{{cite web |title=Renewable Power Costs in 2022 |url=https://www.irena.org/News/articles/2023/Aug/Infographic-Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2022 |website=IRENA.org |publisher=International Renewable Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829234136/https://www.irena.org/News/articles/2023/Aug/Infographic-Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2022 |archive-date=29 August 2023 |date=August 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option.<ref name=IRENA_20210622>{{cite web |title=Majority of New Renewables Undercut Cheapest Fossil Fuel on Cost |url=https://www.irena.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2021/Jun/Majority-of-New-Renewables-Undercut-Cheapest-Fossil-Fuel-on-Cost |website=IRENA.org |publisher=International Renewable Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622210639/https://www.irena.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2021/Jun/Majority-of-New-Renewables-Undercut-Cheapest-Fossil-Fuel-on-Cost |archive-date=22 June 2021 |date=22 June 2021 |url-status=live}} ● [https://www.irena.org/newsroom/articles/2021/Jun/Low-Renewable-Costs-Allow-To-Power-Past-Coal Infographic] (with numerical data) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20210624184715/https://www.irena.org/newsroom/articles/2021/Jun/Low-Renewable-Costs-Allow-To-Power-Past-Coal archive thereof]</ref>]]
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."<ref name=henning>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-iea-renewables-idUSTRE7AM0OV20111123 |title=Renewable energy becoming cost competitive, IEA says |author=Henning Gloystein |date=23 November 2011  |work=Reuters }}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies:
<blockquote>
{{clear}}
The price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60 percent since the summer of 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. Wind turbine prices have also fallen – by 18 percent per MW in the last two years – reflecting, as with solar, fierce competition in the supply chain. Further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar, wind and other technologies lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.<ref name=invest2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/renewables-investment-breaks-records |title=Renewables Investment Breaks Records |date=29 August 2011 |work=Renewable Energy World }}</ref>
</blockquote>

Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the [[levelised cost of electricity]] (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.<ref name=irena111>{{cite web |url=http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Overview_Renewable%20Power%20Generation%20Costs%20in%202012.pdf |title=Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview |author=International Renewable Energy Agency |year=2012 |access-date=3 April 2013 |archive-date=15 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715192845/https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Overview_Renewable%20Power%20Generation%20Costs%20in%202012.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
 
Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today".<ref name=irena111/> As of 2012, renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally. In 2011, additions included 41 [[gigawatt]] (GW) of new wind power capacity, 30 GW of PV, 25 GW of hydro-electricity, 6 GW of biomass, 0.5 GW of CSP, and 0.1 GW of geothermal power.<ref name=irena111/>

=== Three generations of technologies ===
Renewable energy includes a number of sources and technologies at different stages of commercialization. The [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) has defined three generations of renewable energy technologies, reaching back over 100&nbsp;years:

*"''First-generation technologies'' emerged from the [[industrial revolution]] at the end of the 19th century and include [[hydropower]], [[biomass]] [[combustion]], [[geothermal power]] and heat. These technologies are quite widely used.<ref name="IEA"/>
*''Second-generation technologies'' include [[solar heating]] and cooling, [[wind power]], modern forms of [[bioenergy]], and [[solar photovoltaics]]. These are now entering markets as a result of research, development and demonstration (RD&D) investments since the 1980s. Initial investment was prompted by [[energy security]] concerns linked to the [[1973 oil crisis|oil crises]] of the 1970s but the enduring appeal of these technologies is due, at least in part, to environmental benefits. Many of the technologies reflect significant advancements in materials.<ref name="IEA"/>
*''Third-generation technologies'' are still under development and include advanced [[biomass gasification]], [[biorefinery]] technologies, concentrating [[solar thermal]] power, [[hot-dry-rock]] geothermal power, and [[ocean energy]]. Advances in [[nanotechnology]] may also play a major role".<ref name="IEA"/>

First-generation technologies are well established, second-generation technologies are entering markets, and third-generation technologies heavily depend on long-term research and development commitments, where the public sector has a role to play.<ref name="IEA"/>

== First-generation technologies ==
[[File:Biomasseheizwerk Spillern Nordansicht.jpg|thumb|right|Biomass heating plant in Austria. The total heat power is about 1000 kW.]]

First-generation technologies are widely used in locations with abundant resources. Their future use depends on the exploration of the remaining resource potential, particularly in developing countries, and on overcoming challenges related to the environment and social acceptance.

=== Biomass ===

[[Biomass]], the burning of organic materials for heat and power, is a fully [[mature technology]].  Unlike most renewable sources, biomass (and hydropower) can supply stable [[base load]] power generation.<ref name="Carneiro2012">{{cite journal |last1=Carneiro |first1=Patrícia |last2=Carneiro|first2=Paula Ferreira |date=30 January 2012 |title=The economic, environmental and strategic value of biomass |url=https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/19563/3/carneiro_paula_RE_2012.pdf |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=44 |pages=17–22 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2011.12.020 |access-date=17 July 2021|hdl=1822/19563 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Biomass produces CO<sub>2</sub> emissions on combustion, and the issue of whether biomass is ''[[Carbon neutrality|carbon neutral]]'' is contested.<ref name="Harvey2018">{{cite news |last1=Harvey|first1=Chelsea|last2= Heikkinen|first2=Niina |date=23 March 2018 |title=Congress Says Biomass Is Carbon-Neutral, but Scientists Disagree |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/congress-says-biomass-is-carbon-neutral-but-scientists-disagree |work=Scientific American |access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref> Material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences. Improved cook stove programs are alleviating some of these effects.

The industry remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007, but demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many [[Developing country|developing countries]], as well as [[Renewable energy in Brazil|Brazil]] and [[Renewable energy in Germany#Biomass|Germany]].

The economic viability of biomass is dependent on regulated tariffs, due to high costs of infrastructure and ingredients for ongoing operations.<ref name="Carneiro2012"/> Biomass does offer a ready disposal mechanism by burning municipal, agricultural, and industrial organic waste products. First-generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive, but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues.<ref name="IEA" /> As part of the [[food vs. fuel]] debate, several economists from [[Iowa State University]] found in 2008 "there is no evidence to disprove that the primary objective of biofuel policy is to support farm income."<ref>{{cite report |last1=Rubin |first1=Ofir D. |last2=Carriquiry |first2=Miguel |last3=Hayes |first3=Dermot J. |date=February 2008 |title=Implied Objectives of U.S. Biofuel Subsidies |url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1480&context=card_workingpapers |work=CARD Working Papers |volume=493 |at=Abstract |publisher=Iowa State University |access-date=17 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Hydroelectricity ===
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb| The 22,500 [[Megawatt|MW]] [[Three Gorges Dam]] in the [[People's Republic of China]], the largest hydroelectric power station in the world]]
[[Hydroelectricity]] is the term referring to electricity generated by [[hydropower]]; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the worlds total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity<ref>http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/GSR_2016_Full_Report_REN21.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years. [[Hydroelectric]] plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the [[Three Gorges Dam]] in China, [[Itaipu Dam]] across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and [[Guri Dam]] in Venezuela.<ref name=wi2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/9527 |title=Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases |author=Worldwatch Institute |date=January 2012 |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924062448/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/9527 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The cost of hydroelectricity is low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.<ref name=wi2012/>

=== Geothermal power and heat ===
[[File:West Ford Flat Geothermal Cooling Tower.JPG|thumb|right|One of many power plants at [[The Geysers]], a geothermal power field in northern California, with a total output of over 750&nbsp;MW]]

[[Geothermal power]] plants can operate 24&nbsp;hours per day, providing [[baseload]] capacity. Estimates for the world potential capacity for geothermal power generation vary widely, ranging from 40 GW by 2020 to as much as 6,000 GW.<ref>

Bertani, R., 2003, [http://www.geothermal-energy.org/files-15.html "What is Geothermal Potential?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726102158/http://www.geothermal-energy.org/files-15.html |date=26 July 2011 }}, IGA News, 53, page 1-3.

</ref><ref name="IPCC Geothermal 2008">

Fridleifsson, I.B., R. Bertani, E. Huenges, J. W. Lund, A. Ragnarsson, and L. Rybach (2008). [http://www.iea-gia.org/documents/FridleifssonetalIPCCGeothermalpaper2008FinalRybach20May08_000.pdf The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100308014920/http://www.iea-gia.org/documents/FridleifssonetalIPCCGeothermalpaper2008FinalRybach20May08_000.pdf |date=8 March 2010 }}. In: O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin (Eds.), IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources, Proceedings, Luebeck, Germany, 20–25 January 2008, p. 59-80.</ref>

Geothermal power capacity grew from around 1 GW in 1975 to almost 10 GW in 2008.<ref name="IPCC Geothermal 2008"/> The United States is the world leader in terms of installed capacity, representing 3.1 GW. Other countries with significant installed capacity include the Philippines (1.9 GW), Indonesia (1.2 GW), Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.8 GW), Iceland (0.6 GW), Japan (0.5 GW), and New Zealand (0.5 GW).<ref name="IPCC Geothermal 2008"/><ref>

Islandsbanki Geothermal Research, United States Geothermal Energy Market Report, October 2009, accessed through [http://www.islandbanki.is website of Islandbanki]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.

</ref> In some countries, geothermal power accounts for a significant share of the total electricity supply, such as in the Philippines, where geothermal represented 17 percent of the total power mix at the end of 2008.<ref>

Leonora Walet. [https://www.reuters.com/article/GCA-GreenBusiness/idUSTRE5A43HC20091105 Philippines targets $2.5 billion geothermal development], ''Reuters'', 5 November 2009.</ref>

Geothermal (ground source) heat pumps represented an estimated 30 GWth of installed capacity at the end of 2008, with other direct uses of geothermal heat (i.e., for space heating, agricultural drying and other uses) reaching an estimated 15 GWth. {{As of|2008}}, at least 76 countries use direct geothermal energy in some form.<ref name=renewables/>

== Second-generation technologies ==

Second-generation technologies have gone from being a passion for the dedicated few to a major economic sector in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide.<ref name="IEA"/><ref name=UNEP2 />

=== Solar heating ===
[[File:Solar heater dsc00632.jpg|thumb|Solar energy technologies, such as [[solar water heater]]s, located on or near the buildings which they supply with energy, are a prime example of a [[soft energy technology]].]]
{{See also|Solar hot water}}

[[Solar heating]] systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of [[solar thermal collector]]s, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pools, or homes and businesses.<ref>Brian Norton (2011) Solar Water Heaters: A Review of Systems Research and Design Innovation, Green. 1, 189–207, ISSN (Online) 1869–8778</ref> The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.<ref>International Energy Agency. [http://www.iea-shc.org/task25/index.html Solar assisted air-conditioning of buildings] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105091415/http://www.iea-shc.org/task25/index.html |date=5 November 2012 }}</ref>

In many warmer climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy. {{As of|2009}}, China has 27 million rooftop solar water heaters.<ref>Lester R. Brown. ''Plan B 4.0: Mobilizing to Save Civilization'', Earth Policy Institute, 2009, p. 122.</ref>

=== Photovoltaics ===
[[File:Nellis AFB Solar panels.jpg|thumb|[[Nellis Solar Power Plant]] at Nellis Air Force Base. These panels track the sun in one axis.]]
{{Main|Photovoltaics|List of photovoltaic power stations}}
[[File:Solar-crop.jpg|thumb|President [[Barack Obama]] speaks at the [[DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center]].]]

Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also called [[solar cell]]s, convert light into electricity. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used to provide [[remote-area power supply]], but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing [[building integrated photovoltaics]] and [[photovoltaic power station]]s for grid connected applications.

Many plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

=== Wind power ===
[[File:Global Wind Power Cumulative Capacity.svg|thumb|right|Wind power: worldwide installed capacity<ref name="GWEC_Market">[http://www.gwec.net/index.php?id=180 GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual Market Update]</ref>]]
[[File:Windmills south of Dumas, TX IMG 0570.JPG|thumb|right|Landowners in the US typically receive $3,000 to $5,000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine, while farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of the turbines.<ref name=nine>American Wind Energy Association (2009). [http://www.awea.org/publications/reports/AWEA-Annual-Wind-Report-2009.pdf Annual Wind Industry Report, Year Ending 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420000438/http://www.awea.org/publications/reports/AWEA-Annual-Wind-Report-2009.pdf |date=20 April 2009 }} pp. 9–10.</ref>]]

{{See also|wind power|List of onshore wind farms|List of offshore wind farms}}

Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs.<ref>[http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch10.pdf "Stabilizing Climate" (PDF)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926235731/http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch10.pdf |date=26 September 2007 }} in [[Lester R. Brown]], ''[[Plan B 2.0]] Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble'' (NY: W.W. Norton & Co., 2006), p. 189.</ref><ref name="clean">[[Clean Edge]] (2007). [http://www.cleantechnology.com.au/pdf/ctf2007slides/CTF2007_CleanEdge.pdf ''The Clean Tech Revolution... the costs of clean energy are declining'' (PDF)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831013044/http://www.cleantechnology.com.au/pdf/ctf2007slides/CTF2007_CleanEdge.pdf |date=31 August 2007 }} p.8.

</ref> Wind power could become cheaper than nuclear power.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/feb/12/uk-offshore-wind-will-lower-energy-bills-more-than-nuclear  UK offshore wind 'will lower energy bills' more than nuclear] ''[[The Guardian]]''</ref> Global wind power installations increased by 35,800 MW in 2010, bringing total installed capacity up to 194,400 MW, a 22.5% increase on the 158,700 MW installed at the end of 2009. The increase for 2010 represents investments totalling €47.3&nbsp;billion (US$65&nbsp;billion) and for the first time more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America, mainly driven, by the continuing boom in China which accounted for nearly half of all of the installations at 16,500 MW. China now has 42,300 MW of wind power installed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/03/wind-power-china-picks-up-paceeu-and-us-fall-but-global-market-grows |title=Wind Power: China Picks Up Pace |author=David Beattie |date= 18 March 2011 |work=Renewable Energy World  }}</ref> Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generated in [[Wind power in Denmark|Denmark]], 9% in [[Wind power in Spain|Spain]] and [[Wind power in Portugal|Portugal]], and 6% in [[Wind power in Germany|Germany]] and the Republic of Ireland.<ref>[http://www.pr-inside.com/new-report-a-complete-analysis-of-r533066.htm New Report a Complete Analysis of the Global Offshore Wind Energy Industry and its Major Players]</ref> In Australian state of South Australia wind power, championed by Premier Mike Rann (2002–2011), now comprises 26% of the state's electricity generation, edging out coal fired power. At the end of 2011 South Australia, with 7.2% of Australia's population, had 54% of the nation's installed wind power capacity.<ref>Center for National Policy, Washington DC: What States Can Do, 2 April 2012</ref>

Wind power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%.<ref>http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf pg31</ref>

The wind industry is able to produce more power at lower cost by using taller wind turbines with longer blades, capturing the faster winds at higher elevations. This has opened up new opportunities and in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, the price of power from wind turbines built 300 feet to 400 feet above the ground can now compete with conventional fossil fuels like coal. Prices have fallen to about 4 cents per kilowatt-hour in some cases and utilities have been increasing the amount of wind energy in their portfolio, saying it is their cheapest option.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/21/business/energy-environment/wind-industrys-new-technologies-are-helping-it-compete-on-price.html?_r=0 |title=Wind Industry's New Technologies Are Helping It Compete on Price |author=[[Diane Cardwell]] |date=20 March 2014 |work=New York Times }}</ref>

=== Solar thermal power stations ===
{{wide image|Ivanpah SEGS (2).JPG|650px|View of [[Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System]] from Yates Well Road, [[San Bernardino County, California]]. The [[Clark Mountain Range]] can be seen in the distance.}}
{{See also|Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert|List of solar thermal power stations}}
[[File:PS20andPS10.jpg|right|thumb|Solar Towers from left: [[PS10]], [[PS20]].]]

[[Solar thermal power]] stations include the 354&nbsp;[[megawatt]] (MW) [[Solar Energy Generating Systems]] power plant in the US, [[Solnova Solar Power Station]] (Spain, 150&nbsp;MW), [[Andasol solar power station]] (Spain, 100&nbsp;MW), [[Nevada Solar One]] (USA, 64&nbsp;MW), [[PS20 solar power tower]] (Spain, 20&nbsp;MW), and the [[PS10 solar power tower]] (Spain, 11&nbsp;MW). The 370 MW [[Ivanpah Solar Power Facility]], located in California's [[Mojave Desert]], is the world's largest solar-thermal power plant project currently under construction.<ref name=woody>

Todd Woody. [http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2334 In California's Mojave Desert, Solar-Thermal Projects Take Off] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105031846/http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2334 |date=5 November 2010 }} ''Yale Environment 360'', 27 October 2010.

</ref> Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA.<ref name=global>[[REN21]] (2008). [http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/renewables2007.pdf Renewables 2007 Global Status Report (PDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408213734/http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/renewables2007.pdf |date=8 April 2008 }} p. 12.</ref> In developing countries, three [[World Bank]] projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in [[Egypt]], [[Mexico]], and [[Morocco]] have been approved.<ref name=global/>

=== Modern forms of bioenergy ===
{{See also|Biofuels|Sustainable biofuel}}
[[File:Sao Paulo ethanol pump 04 2008 74 zoom.jpg|thumb|left|[[Common ethanol fuel mixtures#E100|Neat ethanol]] on the left (A), gasoline on the right (G) at a [[filling station]] in Brazil]]

Global [[ethanol]] production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17&nbsp;billion to more than 52&nbsp;billion litres, while [[biodiesel]] expanded more than tenfold from less than 1&nbsp;billion to almost 11&nbsp;billion litres. Biofuels provide 1.8% of the world's transport fuel and recent estimates indicate a continued high growth. The main producing countries for transport biofuels are the US, Brazil, and the EU.<ref>United Nations Environment Programme (2009). ''[http://www.unep.fr/scp/rpanel/pdf/Assessing_Biofuels_Full_Report.pdf Assessing Biofuels] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122133933/http://www.unep.fr/scp/rpanel/pdf/Assessing_Biofuels_Full_Report.pdf |date=22 November 2009 }}'', p.15.</ref>

[[Brazil]] has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of [[ethanol fuel]] from [[sugar cane]], and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country's automotive fuel. As a result of this and the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which for years had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, recently reached complete self-sufficiency in liquid fuels.<ref>

[http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=44896 America and Brazil Intersect on Ethanol] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926230948/http://www.renewableenergyaccess.com/rea/news/story?id=44896 |date=26 September 2007 }} ''Renewable Energy Access'', 15 May 2006.

</ref><ref>

[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/21/AR2006042100139.html New Rig Brings Brazil Oil Self-Sufficiency] ''Washington Post'', 21 April 2006.</ref>

[[File:EthanolPetrol.jpg|right|thumb|Information on pump, California]]

Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10 percent ethanol, a mix known as E10,<ref>

Erica Gies. [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/25/business/energy-environment/25iht-rbogeth.html?src=busln As Ethanol Booms, Critics Warn of Environmental Effect] ''The New York Times'', 24 June 2010.

</ref> and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[DaimlerChrysler]], and [[General Motors Corporation|GM]] are among the automobile companies that sell [[flexible-fuel]] cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date. The [[Energy Policy Act of 2005]], which calls for {{convert|7.5|e9USgal|m3}} of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.<ref name="world">Worldwatch Institute and Center for American Progress (2006). [http://images1.americanprogress.org/il80web20037/americanenergynow/AmericanEnergy.pdf ''American energy: The renewable path to energy security'' (PDF)]</ref>

The growing ethanol and biodiesel industries are providing jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, "the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005 alone, boosting household income by $5.7&nbsp;billion. It also contributed about $3.5&nbsp;billion in tax revenues at the local, state, and federal levels".<ref name="world" />

== Third-generation technologies ==

Third-generation renewable energy technologies are still under development and include advanced [[biomass gasification]], [[biorefinery]] technologies, [[hot-dry-rock]] geothermal power, and [[ocean energy]]. Third-generation technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research and development funding.<ref name="IEA" />

=== New bioenergy technologies ===

{| class="wikitable floatright" 
|+Selected Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants<br />in the U.S.<ref>Decker, Jeff. [http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/magazine/story?id=54346 Going Against the Grain: Ethanol from Lignocellulosics], ''Renewable Energy World'', 22 January 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grainnet.com/pdf/cellulosemap.pdf |title=Building Cellulose |access-date=2010-07-08}}</ref>
|-
!  Company  !!  Location  !!  Feedstock
|-
| [[Abengoa]] Bioenergy || Hugoton, KS || Wheat straw
|-
| [[BlueFire Ethanol]] || Irvine, CA  || Multiple sources
|-
| [[Gulf Coast Energy]] || Mossy Head, FL || Wood waste
|-
| [[Mascoma Corporation|Mascoma]] || Lansing, MI || Wood
|-
| [[POET LLC]] || Emmetsburg, IA || Corn cobs
|-
| [[SunOpta]] || Little Falls, MN || Wood chips
|-
| [[Xethanol]] ||  Auburndale, FL || Citrus peels
|-
| colspan=3 | {{small|Note: plants are either operational or under construction}}
|}
{{See also|Cellulosic ethanol commercialization}}

According to the International Energy Agency, [[cellulosic ethanol]] biorefineries could allow biofuels to play a much bigger role in the future than organizations such as the IEA previously thought.<ref>
International Energy Agency (2006). [http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/weo2006.pdf ''World Energy Outlook 2006'' (PDF)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091120102945/http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2006/weo2006.pdf |date=20 November 2009 }}.
</ref> Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of inedible cellulose fibers that form the stems and branches of most plants. Crop residues (such as [[Corn stover|corn stalks]], wheat straw and rice straw), wood waste, and [[municipal solid waste]] are potential sources of cellulosic biomass. Dedicated energy crops, such as [[Panicum virgatum|switchgrass]], are also promising cellulose sources that can be [[Sustainable biofuel|sustainably produced]] in many regions.<ref>Biotechnology Industry Organization (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20060212025744/http://www.bio.org/ind/biofuel/CellulosicEthanolIssueBrief.pdf ''Industrial Biotechnology Is Revolutionizing the Production of Ethanol Transportation Fuel''] pp. 3–4.</ref>

=== Ocean energy ===

[[Ocean energy]] is all forms of renewable energy derived from the sea including wave energy, tidal energy, river current, ocean current energy, offshore wind, salinity gradient energy and ocean thermal gradient energy.<ref name=OE1>[http://oceanenergy.epri.com/ ''Ocean energy''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031162616/http://oceanenergy.epri.com/ |date=31 October 2012 }} EPRI Ocean Energy Web Page</ref>

The [[Rance Tidal Power Station]] (240 MW) is the world's first [[tidal power|tidal]] power station. The facility is located on the estuary of the [[Rance River]], in [[Brittany]], France. Opened on 26 November 1966, it is currently operated by [[Électricité de France]], and is the largest tidal power station in the world, in terms of installed capacity.

First proposed more than thirty years ago, systems to harvest utility-scale electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered promising, especially on west-facing coasts with latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees:<ref name=je>Jeff Scruggs and Paul Jacob. Harvesting Ocean Wave Energy, ''Science'', Vol. 323, 27 February 2009, p. 1176.</ref>
<blockquote>
In the United Kingdom, for example, the Carbon Trust recently estimated the extent of the economically viable offshore resource at 55 TWh per year, about 14% of current national demand. Across Europe, the technologically achievable resource has been estimated to be at least 280 TWh per year. In 2003, the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) estimated the viable resource in the United States at 255 TWh per year (6% of demand).<ref name=je/>
</blockquote>
There are currently nine projects, completed or in-development, off the coasts of the United Kingdom, United States, Spain and Australia to harness the rise and fall of waves by [[Ocean Power Technologies]]. The current maximum power output is 1.5 MW ([[Reedsport, Oregon]]), with development underway for 100 MW ([[Coos Bay, Oregon]]).<ref name=OPT>[http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com/projects.html ''Projects''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401203800/http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com/projects.html |date=1 April 2012 }} Ocean Power Technologies Projects</ref>

=== Enhanced geothermal systems ===

{{As of|2008}}, geothermal power development was under way in more than 40 countries, partially attributable to the development of new technologies, such as Enhanced Geothermal Systems.<ref name=renewables>[[REN21]] (2009). [http://www.ren21.net/pdf/RE_GSR_2009_update.pdf Renewables Global Status Report: 2009 Update] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612132038/http://www.ren21.net/pdf/RE_GSR_2009_update.pdf |date=12 June 2009 }} pp. 12–13.</ref> The development of [[binary cycle power plant]]s and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable [[enhanced geothermal systems]] over a much greater geographical range than "traditional" Geothermal systems. Demonstration EGS projects are operational in the US, Australia, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bertani|first=Ruggero|date=2009|title=Geothermal Energy: An Overview on Resources and Potential|url=https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/GeoFund/Turkey2009/3._bertani.pdf|access-date=2021-09-04|website=www.geothermal-energy.org}}</ref>

=== Advanced solar concepts ===
Beyond the already established [[solar photovoltaics]] and solar thermal power technologies are such advanced solar concepts as the solar updraft tower or space-based solar power. These concepts have yet to (if ever) be commercialized.  
{{See also|Solar updraft tower}}
'''The Solar updraft tower (SUT)''' is a [[Renewable energy|renewable-energy]] [[power plant]] for generating electricity from low temperature solar heat. Sunshine heats the air beneath a very wide greenhouse-like roofed collector structure surrounding the central base of a very tall [[chimney]] tower. The resulting [[convection]] causes a hot air updraft in the tower by the [[chimney effect]]. This airflow drives [[wind turbine]]s placed in the chimney updraft or around the chimney base to produce [[electricity]]. Plans for scaled-up versions of demonstration models will allow significant power generation, and may allow development of other applications, such as water extraction or distillation, and agriculture or horticulture. To view a study on the solar updraft tower and its affects click here<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Das|first1=Pritam|last2=Chandramohan|first2=V. P.|date=2019-04-01|title=Computational study on the effect of collector cover inclination angle, absorber plate diameter and chimney height on flow and performance parameters of solar updraft tower (SUT) plant|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544219301446|journal=Energy|language=en|volume=172|pages=366–379|doi=10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.128|s2cid=115161178|issn=0360-5442}}</ref>

A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the [[Vortex engine]] (AVE) which aims to replace large physical chimneys with a [[vortex]] of air created by a shorter, less-expensive structure.
{{See also|Space-based solar power}}
'''Space-based solar power''' ('''SBSP''') is the concept of collecting [[solar power]] in [[Outer space|space]] (using an "SPS", that is, a "solar-power satellite" or a "satellite power system") for use on [[Earth]]. It has been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current [[Sun|solar]] collection methods in that the means used to collect [[energy]] would reside on an [[orbit]]ing [[satellite]] instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing [[atmosphere]] and night [[time]] in [[space]].

== Renewable energy industry ==
[[File:Vestas Turbine.JPG|thumb|A Vestas wind turbine]]
[[File:Klassieren.jpg|thumb|Monocrystalline solar cell]]

Total investment in renewable energy reached $211&nbsp;billion in 2010, up from $160&nbsp;billion in 2009. The top countries for investment in 2010 were
China, Germany, the United States, Italy, and Brazil.<ref name="REN21 2011 35"/> Continued growth for the renewable energy sector is expected and promotional policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.<ref name=obama>[[Joel Makower]], [[Ron Pernick]] and [[Clint Wilder]] (2009). [http://www.cleanedge.com/reports/pdf/Trends2009.pdf ''Clean Energy Trends 2009''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318040043/http://www.cleanedge.com/reports/pdf/Trends2009.pdf |date=18 March 2009 }}, [[Clean Edge]], pp. 1–4.</ref>

=== Wind power companies ===
{{See also|Wind power industry}}

{{As of|2010}}, [[Vestas]] (from Denmark) is the world's top wind turbine manufacturer in terms of percentage of market volume, and [[Sinovel]] (from China) is in second place. Together Vestas and Sinovel delivered 10,228 MW of new wind power capacity in 2010, and their market share was 25.9 percent. [[GE Energy]] (USA) was in third place, closely followed by [[Goldwind]], another Chinese supplier. German [[Enercon]] ranks fifth in the world, and is followed in sixth place by Indian-based [[Suzlon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/world-wind-market-record-installations-but-growth-rates-still-falling |title=World Wind Market: Record Installations, But Growth Rates Still Falling |author=Tildy Bayar |date=4 August 2011 |work=Renewable Energy World }}</ref>

=== Photovoltaic market trends ===
{{See also|List of photovoltaics companies}}
The solar PV market has been growing for the past few years. According to solar PV research company, PVinsights, worldwide shipment of solar modules in 2011 was around 25 GW, and the shipment year over year growth was around 40%. The top 5 solar module players in 2011 in turns are Suntech, First Solar, Yingli, Trina, and Sungen. The top 5 solar module companies possessed 51.3% market share of solar modules, according to PVinsights' market intelligence report.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! 2013<br />Ranking!! Solar Module <br /> Company !! Change from<br />2012 !! Country
|-
| 1 ||[[Yingli Green Energy]] || – ||{{flagicon|China}} China
|-
| 2 || [[Trina Solar]]|| +1 ||{{flagicon|China}} China
|-
| 3 || [[Sharp Solar]] || +3 ||{{flagicon|Japan}} Japan
|-
| 4 || [[Canadian Solar]] || – ||{{flagicon|Canada}} Canada
|-
| 5 || [[Jinko Solar]]|| +3 ||{{flagicon|China}} China
|-
| 6 || [[ReneSola]] || +7 ||{{flagicon|China}} China
|-
| 7 || [[First Solar]] || −2 || {{flagicon|United States}} United States
|-
| 8 || [[Hanwha Solarone]] || +2 ||{{flagicon|South Korea}} South Korea
|-
| 9 || [[Kyocera]] || +5 ||{{flagicon|Japan}} Japan
|-
| 10 || [[JA Solar]] || −3 ||{{flagicon|China}} China
|-
! colspan=6 | {{small|Sources:}}<ref>[http://www.pv-tech.org/guest_blog/top_10_pv_module_suppliers_in_2013 Top 10 PV module suppliers in 2013]</ref><ref>[http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf Renewables 2012 Global Status Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215215616/http://www.map.ren21.net/GSR/GSR2012.pdf |date=15 December 2012 }}</ref>
|}

The PV industry has seen drops in module prices since 2008. In late 2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules dropped below the $1.00/W mark. The $1.00/W installed cost, is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of [[grid parity]] for PV. These reductions have taken many stakeholders, including industry analysts, by surprise, and perceptions of current solar power economics often lags behind reality. Some stakeholders still have the perspective that solar PV remains too costly on an unsubsidized basis to compete with conventional generation options. Yet technological advancements, manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, mean that further price reductions are likely in coming years.<ref name=reconsidering>{{cite web |url=http://az2112.com/assets/energy-bnef_re_considering_the_economics_of_photovoltaic_power_a_co_authored_white.pdf |title=Re-considering the economics of photovoltaic power |author1=M Bazilian |author2=I Onyeji |author3=M Liebreich |author4=I MacGill |author5=J Chase |author6=J Shah |author7=D Gielen... |date=2013 |work=Renewable Energy (53) |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531105637/http://az2112.com/assets/energy-bnef_re_considering_the_economics_of_photovoltaic_power_a_co_authored_white.pdf |archive-date=31 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Non-technical barriers to acceptance ==
[[File:202307 Survey - comfortable with solar wind nuclear in my community.svg|thumb |Acceptance of wind and solar facilities in one's community is stronger among Democrats (blue), while acceptance of nuclear power plants is stronger among Republicans (red).<ref name=WashPost_20231003>{{cite news |last1=Chiu |first1=Allyson |last2=Guskin |first2=Emily |last3=Clement |first3=Scott |title=Americans don't hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/10/03/solar-panels-wind-turbines-nimby/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003211732/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/10/03/solar-panels-wind-turbines-nimby/ |archive-date=3 October 2023 | url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels.<ref name=jacob2010>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/DJEnPolicyPt2.pdf |title=Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, and Policies |author=Delucchi, Mark A. and [[Mark Z. Jacobson]]  |year=2010 |work=Energy Policy }}

</ref> Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big, conventional power plants.<ref name=epsov/> Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption. Intentional market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as split incentives) may work against renewables.<ref name=epsov>Benjamin K. Sovacool. "Rejecting Renewables: The Socio-technical Impediments to Renewable Electricity in the United States," ''Energy Policy'', 37(11) (November 2009), p. 4500.</ref> [[Benjamin K. Sovacool]] has argued that "some of the most surreptitious, yet powerful, impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about ''culture'' and ''institutions'' than engineering and science".<ref>
Benjamin K. Sovacool. "The Cultural Barriers to Renewable Energy in the United States," ''Technology in Society'', 31(4) (November 2009), p. 372.</ref>

The obstacles to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political, not technical,<ref>
Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi. A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030, ''Scientific American'', November 2009, p. 45.
</ref> and there have been many studies which have identified a range of "non-technical barriers" to renewable energy use.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lathia|first1=Rutvik Vasudev|last2=Dadhaniya|first2=Sujal|date=February 2017|title=Policy formation for Renewable Energy sources|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=144|pages=334–336|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.023}}</ref><ref name=ieapress/><ref name="NREL">[[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] (2006). ''Nontechnical Barriers to Solar Energy Use: Review of Recent Literature'', Technical Report, NREL/TP-520-40116, September, 30 pages.</ref><ref name=GREMS>
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, (2005). [http://www.ppre.uni-oldenburg.de/download/Downloads/Global_RE-Report-2005.pdf Increasing Global Renewable Energy Market Share: Recent Trends and Perspectives] Final Report.</ref> These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy. Key barriers include:<ref name="NREL" /><ref name=GREMS />

* Difficulty overcoming established energy systems, which includes difficulty introducing innovative energy systems, particularly for [[distributed generation]] such as photovoltaics, because of technological lock-in, electricity markets designed for centralized power plants, and market control by established operators. As the [[Stern Review|Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change]] points out:

<blockquote>"National grids are usually tailored towards the operation of centralised power plants and thus favour their performance. Technologies that do not easily fit into these networks may struggle to enter the market, even if the technology itself is commercially viable. This applies to distributed generation as most grids are not suited to receive electricity from many small sources. Large-scale renewables may also encounter problems if they are sited in areas far from existing grids."<ref name=Stern2>

HM Treasury (2006). [http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm ''Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change''] p.&nbsp;355.</ref>
</blockquote>
* Lack of government policy support, which includes the lack of policies and regulations supporting deployment of renewable energy technologies and the presence of policies and regulations hindering renewable energy development and supporting conventional energy development. Examples include [[fossil fuel subsidies|subsidies for fossil-fuels]], insufficient consumer-based [[renewable energy incentives]], government underwriting for nuclear plant accidents, and complex zoning and permitting processes for renewable energy.
* Lack of information dissemination and consumer awareness.
* Higher capital cost of renewable energy technologies compared with conventional energy technologies.
* Inadequate financing options for renewable energy projects, including insufficient access to affordable financing for project developers, entrepreneurs and consumers.
* Imperfect capital markets, which includes failure to internalize all costs of conventional energy (e.g., effects of air pollution, risk of supply disruption)<ref>Matthew L. Wald.
[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/science/earth/20fossil.html Fossil Fuels’ Hidden Cost Is in Billions, Study Says] ''The New York Times'', 20 October 2009.</ref> and failure to internalize all benefits of renewable energy (e.g., cleaner air, energy security).
* Inadequate workforce skills and training, which includes lack of adequate scientific, technical, and manufacturing skills required for renewable energy production; lack of reliable installation, maintenance, and inspection services; and failure of the educational system to provide adequate training in new technologies.
* Lack of adequate codes, standards, utility interconnection, and net-metering guidelines.
* Poor public perception of renewable energy system aesthetics.
* Lack of stakeholder/community participation and co-operation in energy choices and renewable energy projects.

With such a wide range of non-technical barriers, there is no "silver bullet" solution to drive the transition to renewable energy. So ideally there is a need for several different types of policy instruments to complement each other and overcome different types of barriers.<ref name=GREMS /><ref>Diesendorf, Mark (2007). ''Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy'', UNSW Press, p. 293.</ref>

A policy framework must be created that will level the playing field and redress the imbalance of traditional approaches associated with fossil fuels. The policy landscape must keep pace with broad trends within the energy sector, as well as reflecting specific social, economic and environmental priorities.<ref>IEA Renewable Energy Working Party (2002). ''Renewable Energy... into the mainstream'', p. 48.</ref> Some resource-rich countries struggle to move away from fossil fuels and have failed thus far to adopt regulatory frameworks necessary for developing renewable energy (e.g. Russia).<ref>Indra Overland, ‘The Siberian Curse: A Blessing in Disguise for Renewable Energy?’, Sibirica Journal of Siberian Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 1-20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263524693</ref>

== Public policy landscape ==
Public policy has a role to play in renewable energy commercialization because the free market system has some fundamental limitations. As the [[Stern Review]] points out: "In a liberalised energy market, investors, operators and consumers should face the full cost of their decisions. But this is not the case in many economies or energy sectors. Many policies distort the market in favour of existing fossil fuel technologies."<ref name=Stern2 /> The [[International Solar Energy Society]] has stated that "historical incentives for the conventional energy resources continue even today to bias markets by burying many of the real societal costs of their use".<ref>Donald W. Aitken. [http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/downloads/ Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future], [[International Solar Energy Society]], January 2010, p. 4.</ref>

Fossil-fuel energy systems have different production, transmission, and end-use costs and characteristics than do renewable energy systems, and new promotional policies are needed to ensure that renewable systems develop as quickly and broadly as is socially desirable.<ref name=jacob2010/> [[Lester Brown]] states that the market "does not incorporate the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices, it does not value nature's services adequately, and it does not respect the sustainable-yield thresholds of natural systems".<ref name="Br" /> It also favors the near term over the long term, thereby showing limited concern for future generations.<ref name="Br">Brown, L.R. (2006). [http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch12.pdf ''Plan B 2.0 Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711095257/http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch12.pdf |date=11 July 2007 }} W.W. Norton & Co, pp. 228–232.</ref> Tax and subsidy shifting can help overcome these problems,<ref name="Brown">Brown, L.R. (2006). [http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch12.pdf ''Plan B 2.0 Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711095257/http://www.earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/pb2ch12.pdf |date=11 July 2007 }} W.W. Norton & Co, pp. 234–235.</ref> though is also problematic to combine different international normative regimes regulating this issue.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Farah|first1=Paolo Davide|last2=Cima|first2=Elena|title=Energy Trade and the WTO: Implications for Renewable Energy and the OPEC Cartel|journal=Journal of International Economic Law (JIEL), Georgetown University Law Center|date=2013|volume=4|ssrn=2330416}}</ref>

=== Shifting taxes ===
Tax shifting has been widely discussed and endorsed by economists. It involves lowering income taxes while raising levies on environmentally destructive activities, in order to create a more responsive market. For example, a tax on coal that included the increased health care costs associated with breathing polluted air, the costs of acid rain damage, and the costs of climate disruption would encourage investment in renewable technologies. Several Western European countries are already shifting taxes in a process known there as environmental tax reform.<ref name="Br" />

In 2001, Sweden launched a new 10-year environmental tax shift designed to convert 30&nbsp;billion kroner ($3.9&nbsp;billion) of income taxes to taxes on environmentally destructive activities. Other European countries with significant tax reform efforts are France, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom. Asia's two leading economies, Japan and China, are considering carbon taxes.<ref name="Br" />

=== Shifting subsidies ===
{{See also|Energy subsidies}}
Just as there is a need for tax shifting, there is also a need for subsidy shifting. Subsidies are not an inherently bad thing as many technologies and industries emerged through government subsidy schemes. The Stern Review explains that of 20 key innovations from the past 30&nbsp;years, only one of the 14 was funded entirely by the private sector and nine were totally publicly funded.<ref>HM Treasury (2006). [http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm ''Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change''] p. 362.</ref> In terms of specific examples, the Internet was the result of publicly funded links among computers in government laboratories and research institutes. And the combination of the federal tax deduction and a robust state tax deduction in California helped to create the modern wind power industry.<ref name="Brown" /> At the same time specifically US tax credits systems for renewable energy have been described as an "opaque" financial instrument dominated by large investors to reduce their tax payments while greenhouse gas reduction targets are being treated as a side effect.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knuth|first=Sarah|date=2021-12-06|title=Rentiers of the low-carbon economy? Renewable energy's extractive fiscal geographies|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0308518X211062601|journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space|volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1548–1564|doi=10.1177/0308518x211062601|s2cid=244932021 |issn=0308-518X}}</ref>

Lester Brown has argued that "a world facing the prospect of economically disruptive climate change can no longer justify subsidies to expand the burning of coal and oil. Shifting these subsidies to the development of climate-benign energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power is the key to stabilizing the earth's climate."<ref name="Brown"/> The International Solar Energy Society advocates "leveling the playing field" by redressing the continuing inequities in public subsidies of energy technologies and R&D, in which the fossil fuel and nuclear power receive the largest share of financial support.<ref>Donald W. Aitken. [http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/downloads/ Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future], [[International Solar Energy Society]], January 2010, p. 6.</ref>

Some countries are eliminating or reducing climate-disrupting subsidies and Belgium, France, and Japan have phased out all subsidies for coal. Germany is reducing its coal subsidy. The subsidy dropped from $5.4&nbsp;billion in 1989 to $2.8&nbsp;billion in 2002, and in the process Germany lowered its coal use by 46&nbsp;percent. China cut its coal subsidy from $750&nbsp;million in 1993 to $240&nbsp;million in 1995 and more recently has imposed a high-sulfur coal tax.<ref name="Brown"  /> However, the United States has been increasing its support for the fossil fuel and nuclear industries.<ref name="Brown"  />

In November 2011, an IEA report entitled ''[[Deploying Renewables 2011]]'' said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand.<ref name="henning"/>

A fair and efficient imposition of subsidies for renewable energies and aiming at sustainable development, however, require coordination and regulation at a global level, as subsidies granted in one country can easily disrupt industries and policies of others, thus underlining the relevance of this issue at the World Trade Organization.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Farah|first1=Paolo Davide|last2=Cima|first2=Elena|title=World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?|journal=Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (GIELR)|date=2015|volume= 27|issue= 1|ssrn=2704398}} and {{cite journal|title=WTO and Renewable Energy: Lessons from the Case Law|journal=49 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE 6, Kluwer Law International|ssrn=2704453}}</ref>

=== Renewable energy targets ===
Setting national renewable energy targets can be an important part of a renewable energy policy and these targets are usually defined as a percentage of the primary energy and/or electricity generation mix. For example, the [[European Union]] has prescribed an indicative renewable energy target of 12 percent of the total EU [[energy mix]] and 22 percent of electricity consumption by 2010. National targets for individual EU Member States have also been set to meet the overall target. Other developed countries with defined national or regional targets include Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, Switzerland, and some US States.<ref name=UNEP3>United Nations Environment Program (2006).  [http://www.ren21.net/pdf/REN21CC%20rapport.pdf ''Changing climates: The Role of Renewable Energy in a Carbon-constrained World''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928055332/http://www.ren21.net/pdf/REN21CC%20rapport.pdf |date=28 September 2007 }} pp. 14–15.</ref>

National targets are also an important component of renewable energy strategies in some [[developing countries]]. Developing countries with renewable energy targets include China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, Brazil, Egypt, Mali, and South Africa. The targets set by many developing countries are quite modest when compared with those in some industrialized countries.<ref name=UNEP3 />

Renewable energy targets in most countries are indicative and nonbinding but they have assisted government actions and regulatory frameworks. The United Nations Environment Program has suggested that making renewable energy targets legally binding could be an important policy tool to achieve higher renewable energy market penetration.<ref name=UNEP3 />

===Levelling the playing field===
The IEA has identified three actions which will allow renewable energy and other clean energy technologies to "more effectively compete for private sector capital".
*"First, energy prices must appropriately reflect the "true cost" of energy (e.g. through [[carbon price|carbon pricing]]) so that the positive and negative impacts of energy production and consumption are fully taken into account". Example: [[Hinkley Point C nuclear power station|New UK nuclear plants]] cost £92.50/MWh,<ref name=bbcstrike>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24604218|title=UK nuclear power plant gets go-ahead|date=21 October 2013|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref name=telestrike>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/10392510/Hinkley-Point-good-for-Britain-says-Ed-Davey.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021062011/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/10392510/Hinkley-Point-good-for-Britain-says-Ed-Davey.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 October 2013|title=Hinkley Point nuclear power plant to create 25,000 jobs, says Cameron|date=21 October 2013|author1=Roland Gribben  |author2=Denise Roland |name-list-style=amp | publisher= Daily Telegraph}}</ref> whereas offshore wind farms in the UK are supported with €74.2/MWh<ref>Erin Gill. "[http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1189489/france---uk-offshore-costs-higher-average France & UK offshore costs higher than average]" ''Windpower Offshore'', 28 March 2013. Accessed: 22 October 2013.</ref> at a price of £150 in 2011 falling to £130 per MWh in 2022.<ref>Christopher Willow & Bruce Valpy. "[http://www.renewableuk.com/en/publications/index.cfm/Offshore-Wind-Forecasts-of-future-costs-and-benefits Offshore Wind Forecasts of future costs and benefits – June 2011] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023062136/http://www.renewableuk.com/en/publications/index.cfm/Offshore-Wind-Forecasts-of-future-costs-and-benefits |date=23 October 2013 }}" ''Renewable UK'', June 2011. Accessed: 22 October 2013.</ref> In Denmark, the price can be €84/MWh.<ref>"[http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/965856/europe-offshore-offshore-costs---no-consensus-offshore-costs No consensus on offshore costs]" ''Windpower Monthly'', 1 September 2009. Accessed: 22 October 2013.</ref>
*"Second, inefficient fossil fuel subsidies must be removed, while ensuring that all citizens have access to affordable energy".
*"Third, governments must develop policy frameworks that encourage private sector investment in lower-carbon energy options".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/IEA%20Tracking%20Clean%20Energy%20Progress%20report%202012.pdf |title=Tracking Clean Energy Progress |author=IEA |year=2012 }}</ref>

=== Green stimulus programs ===
In response to the [[Late-2000s financial crisis|global financial crisis in the late 2000s]], the world's major governments made "green stimulus" programs one of their main policy instruments for supporting economic recovery. Some {{US$|188 billion}} in green stimulus funding had been allocated to renewable energy and energy efficiency, to be spent mainly in 2010 and in 2011.<ref name=ren27>[[REN21]] (2010). [http://www.ren21.net/globalstatusreport/REN21_GSR_2010_full.pdf Renewables 2010 Global Status Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820221548/http://www.ren21.net/globalstatusreport/REN21_GSR_2010_full.pdf |date=20 August 2010 }} p. 27.</ref>

===Energy sector regulation===
Public policy determines the extent to which renewable energy (RE) is to be incorporated into a developed or developing country's generation mix. Energy sector regulators implement that policy—thus affecting the pace and pattern of RE investments and connections to the grid. Energy regulators often have authority to carry out a number of functions that have implications for the financial feasibility of renewable energy projects. Such functions include issuing licenses, setting performance standards, monitoring the performance of regulated firms, determining the price level and structure of tariffs, establishing uniform systems of accounts, arbitrating stakeholder disputes (like interconnection cost allocations), performing management audits, developing agency human resources (expertise), reporting sector and commission activities to government authorities, and coordinating decisions with other government agencies. Thus, regulators make a wide range of decisions that affect the financial outcomes associated with RE investments. In addition, the sector regulator is in a position to give advice to the government regarding the full implications of focusing on climate change or energy security. The energy sector regulator is the natural advocate for efficiency and cost-containment throughout the process of designing and implementing RE policies. Since policies are not self-implementing, energy sector regulators become a key facilitator (or blocker) of renewable energy investments.<ref name="PURC">Frequently Asked Questions on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation, [http://regulationbodyofknowledge.org/renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency/]</ref>

===Energy transition in Germany===
{{Update section|date=February 2022|reason=Describes situation from 2010's with early promises such as closure of coal power plants, when in reality new coal and gas plants are being built and Energiewende targets for 2020 have been missed. The original article is more up to date, so an excerpt template could be used.}}[[File:Schneebergerhof 01.jpg|thumb|Photovoltaic array and wind turbines at the Schneebergerhof wind farm in the German state of [[Rheinland-Pfalz]]]]
[[File:Energiemix Deutschland.svg|thumb|300px|Gross generation of electricity by source in Germany 1990–2020]]

The ''[[Energiewende]]'' ([[German language|German]] for ''energy transition'') is the [[Energy transition|transition]] by [[Germany]] to a [[Low-carbon economy|low carbon]], environmentally sound, reliable, and affordable energy supply.<ref name="bmwi-and-bmu-2010">
{{cite book
 |author1     = Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi)
 |author2     = Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU)
 |title       = Energy concept for an environmentally sound, reliable and affordable energy supply
 |date        = 28 September 2010
 |publisher   = Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi)
 |place       = Berlin, Germany
 |url         = http://www.bmwi.de/English/Redaktion/Pdf/energy-concept,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi,sprache=en,rwb=true.pdf
 |access-date = 2016-05-01
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161006040920/http://www.bmwi.de/English/Redaktion/Pdf/energy-concept%2Cproperty%3Dpdf%2Cbereich%3Dbmwi%2Csprache%3Den%2Crwb%3Dtrue.pdf
 |archive-date = 6 October 2016
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref> The new system will rely heavily on [[renewable energy]] (particularly [[Wind power|wind]], [[photovoltaics]], and [[biomass]]) [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]], and [[energy demand management]]. Most if not all existing [[Fossil-fuel power station#Coal|coal-fired generation]] will need to be retired.<ref name="acatech-etal-2016-a">
{{cite book
 |editor1     = acatech
 |editor2     = Lepoldina
 |editor3     = Akademienunion
 |year        = 2016
 |title       = Flexibility concepts for the German power supply in 2050: ensuring stability in the age of renewable energies
 |publisher   = acatech — National Academy of Science and Engineering
 |place       = Berlin, Germany
 |url         = http://www.acatech.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Baumstruktur_nach_Website/Acatech/root/de/Publikationen/Kooperationspublikationen/Stellungnahme_Flexibility_concepts.pdf
 |access-date = 2016-04-28
 |isbn        = 978-3-8047-3549-1
}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[Nuclear power phase-out#Germany|phase-out]] of Germany's fleet of [[nuclear reactor]]s, to be complete by 2022, is a key part of the program.<ref name="bruninx-etal-2013">
{{cite journal
 | first1 = Kenneth | last1 = Bruninx
 | first2 = Darin | last2 = Madzharov
 | first3 = Erik | last3 = Delarue
 | first4 = William | last4 = D'haeseleer
 | title = Impact of the German nuclear phase-out on Europe's electricity generation — a comprehensive study
 | journal = Energy Policy
 | volume = 60
 | pages = 251–261
 | year = 2013
 | doi = 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.05.026
 | url = https://www.mech.kuleuven.be/en/tme/research/energy_environment/Pdf/wpen2012-15
 | access-date = 2016-05-12
}}</ref>

Legislative support for the ''Energiewende'' was passed in late 2010 and includes [[greenhouse gas]] (GHG) reductions of 80–95% by 2050 (relative to 1990) and a [[renewable energy]] target of 60% by 2050.<ref name="bmwi-2015-b">
{{cite book
 |title       = The Energy of the Future: Fourth "Energy Transition" Monitoring Report — Summary
 |date        = November 2015
 |publisher   = Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi)
 |place       = Berlin, Germany
 |url         = https://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/V/vierter-monitoring-bericht-energie-der-zukunft-englische-kurzfassung,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rwb=true.pdf
 |access-date = 2016-06-09
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160920202129/https://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/V/vierter-monitoring-bericht-energie-der-zukunft-englische-kurzfassung%2Cproperty%3Dpdf%2Cbereich%3Dbmwi2012%2Csprache%3Dde%2Crwb%3Dtrue.pdf
 |archive-date = 20 September 2016
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref> These targets are ambitious.<ref name="buchan-2012">
{{cite book
 | first = David | last = Buchan
 | title = The Energiewende — Germany's gamble
 | date = June 2012
 | publisher = Oxford Institute for Energy Studies
 | place = Oxford, UK
 | isbn = 978-1-907555-52-7
 | url = https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SP-261.pdf
 | access-date = 2016-05-12
}}</ref> The Berlin-based [[Think tank|policy institute]] [[Agora Energiewende]] noted that "while the German approach is not unique worldwide, the speed and scope of the ''Energiewende'' are exceptional".<ref name="agora-2015-a">{{cite book
 | author = Agora Energiewende
 | title = Understanding the Energiewende: FAQ on the ongoing transition of the German power system
 | year = 2015
 | publisher = [[Agora Energiewende]]
 | place = Berlin, Germany
 | url = http://www.agora-energiewende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2015/Understanding_the_EW/Agora_Understanding_the_Energiewende.pdf
 | access-date = 2016-04-29
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160602074457/https://www.agora-energiewende.de/fileadmin/Projekte/2015/Understanding_the_EW/Agora_Understanding_the_Energiewende.pdf
 | archive-date = 2 June 2016
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref> The ''Energiewende'' also seeks a greater transparency in relation to national [[energy policy]] formation.<ref name="acatech-etal-2016-b">
{{cite book
 | editor1 = acatech
 | editor2 = Lepoldina
 | editor3 = Akademienunion
 | year = 2016
 | title = Consulting with energy scenarios : requirements for scientific policy advice
 | publisher = acatech — National Academy of Science and Engineering
 | place = Berlin, Germany
 | isbn = 978-3-8047-3550-7
 | url = http://www.akademienunion.de/fileadmin/redaktion/user_upload/Publikationen/Stellungnahmen/Stellungnahme_Energy_scenarios.pdf
 | access-date = 2016-11-09
}}</ref>

Germany has made significant progress on its GHG emissions reduction target, achieving a 27% decrease between 1990 and 2014. However Germany will need to maintain an average GHG emissions abatement rate of 3.5% per annum to reach its ''Energiewende'' goal, equal to the maximum historical value thus far.<ref name="hillebrandt-etal-2015">
{{cite book
 | editor-last = Hillebrandt | editor-first = Katharina
 | display-editors = etal
 | year = 2015
 | title = Pathways to deep decarbonization in Germany
 | publisher = Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) and Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations (IDDRI)
 | url = http://deepdecarbonization.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/DDPP_DEU.pdf
 | access-date = 2016-04-28
}}</ref>

Germany spends €1.5{{nbsp}}billion per annum on energy research (2013 figure) in an effort to solve the technical and social issues raised by the transition.<ref name="schiermeier-2013">
{{cite news
 | first = Quirin | last = Schiermeier
 | title = Renewable power: Germany's energy gamble: an ambitious plan to slash greenhouse-gas emissions must clear some high technical and economic hurdles
 | date = 10 April 2013
 | work = Nature
 | url = http://www.nature.com/news/renewable-power-germany-s-energy-gamble-1.12755
 | access-date = 2016-05-01
 | doi = 10.1038/496156a
| bibcode = 2013Natur.496..156S
 }}</ref> This includes a number of computer studies that have confirmed the feasibility and a similar cost (relative to [[Business as usual (business)|business-as-usual]] and given that carbon is adequately priced) of the ''Energiewende''.

These initiatives go well beyond [[European Union]] legislation and the national policies of other European states. The policy objectives have been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in a huge expansion of renewables, particularly wind power. Germany's share of renewables has increased from around 5% in 1999 to 22.9% in 2012, surpassing the OECD average of 18% usage of renewables.<ref name="economist-2012">
{{cite news
 | title = Germany's energy transformation Energiewende
 | date = 28 July 2012
 | newspaper = The Economist
 | url = http://www.economist.com/node/21559667
 | access-date = 2016-06-14
}}</ref>
Producers have been guaranteed a fixed [[feed-in tariff]] for 20 years, guaranteeing a fixed income. Energy co-operatives have been created, and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits. The large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewables market. However, in some cases poor investment designs have caused bankruptcies and low [[Return on investment|returns]], and unrealistic promises have been shown to be far from reality.<ref name="latsch-etal-2014">
{{cite news
 | first1 = Gunther | last1 = Latsch
 | first2 = Anne | last2 = Seith
 | first3 = Gerald | last3 = Traufetter
 | date = 30 January 2014
 | title = Gone with the wind: weak returns cripple German renewables
 | newspaper = Der Spiegel
 | url = http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/wind-power-investments-in-germany-proving-riskier-than-thought-a-946367.html
 | access-date = 2016-06-14
}}</ref>
Nuclear power plants were closed, and the existing nine plants will close earlier than planned, in 2022.

One factor that has inhibited efficient employment of new renewable energy has been the lack of an accompanying investment in power infrastructure to bring the power to market. It is believed 8,300&nbsp;km of power lines must be built or upgraded.<ref name="economist-2012"/> The different [[States of Germany|German States]] have varying attitudes to the construction of new power lines. Industry has had their rates frozen and so the increased costs of the ''Energiewende'' have been passed on to consumers, who have had rising electricity bills.

== Voluntary market mechanisms for renewable electricity ==
Voluntary markets, also referred to as green power markets, are driven by consumer preference. Voluntary markets allow a consumer to choose to do more than policy decisions require and reduce the environmental impact of their electricity use. Voluntary green power products must offer a significant benefit and value to buyers to be successful. Benefits may include zero or reduced greenhouse gas emissions, other pollution reductions or other environmental improvements on power stations.
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/greenpower/gpmarket/markets.htm |title= Voluntary and mandatory markets |date= 25 March 2013|publisher= United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref>

The driving factors behind voluntary green electricity within the EU are the liberalized electricity markets and the RES Directive. According to the directive, the EU Member States must ensure that the origin of electricity produced from renewables can be guaranteed and therefore a "guarantee of origin" must be issued (article 15). Environmental organisations are using the voluntary market to create new renewables and improving sustainability of the existing power production. In the US the main tool to track and stimulate voluntary actions is Green-e program managed by [[Center for Resource Solutions]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.green-e.org/about.shtml |title= About Green-e |year= 2013|publisher= Center for Resource Solutions |access-date=18 April 2013}}</ref> In Europe the main voluntary tool used by the NGOs to promote sustainable electricity production is [[EKOenergy]] label.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ekoenergy.org/where-can-i-buy-it/questions-and-answers |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130704002836/http://www.ekoenergy.org/where-can-i-buy-it/questions-and-answers |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2013-07-04 |title= Frequently asked questions |date= March 2013 |publisher= EKOenergy Network |access-date= 18 April 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref>

== Recent developments ==
{{update|section|date=August 2023}}
A number of events in 2006 pushed renewable energy up the political agenda, including the US mid-term elections in November, which confirmed [[clean energy]] as a mainstream issue. Also in 2006, the Stern Review<ref name=Stern /> made a strong economic case for investing in low carbon technologies now, and argued that economic growth need not be incompatible with cutting energy consumption.<ref>United Nations Environment Programme and New Energy Finance Ltd. (2007), p. 11.</ref> According to a trend analysis from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]], [[Global warming|climate change concerns]]<ref name=UNEP2 /> coupled with recent [[Oil price increases since 2003|high oil prices]]<ref name=high>

[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/10/16/2060441.htm High oil price hits Wall St] ''ABC News'', 16 October 2007. Retrieved on 15 January 2008.</ref> and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the renewable energy and energy efficiency industries.<ref name=UNnews/><ref name="UNEP">United Nations Environment Programme and New Energy Finance Ltd. (2007), p. 3.</ref>

Investment capital flowing into renewable energy reached a record US$77&nbsp;billion in 2007, with the [[Clean Energy Trends|upward trend]] continuing in 2008.<ref name=mak/> The [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] still dominates, but there is now increasing activity from companies in China, India and Brazil. Chinese companies were the second largest recipient of venture capital in 2006 after the United States. In the same year, India was the largest net buyer of companies abroad, mainly in the more established European markets.<ref name="UNEP" />

New government spending, regulation, and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.<ref name=obama/> Most notably, U.S. President [[Barack Obama]]'s [[American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009]] included more than $70&nbsp;billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs. This policy-stimulus combination represents the largest federal commitment in U.S. history for renewables, advanced transportation, and energy conservation initiatives. Based on these new rules, many more utilities strengthened their clean-energy programs.<ref name=obama/> [[Clean Edge]] suggests that the commercialization of clean energy will help countries around the world deal with the current economic malaise.<ref name=obama/> Once-promising solar energy company, [[Solyndra]], became involved in a political controversy involving U.S. President Barack Obama's [[Presidency of Barack Obama|administration]]'s authorization of a $535&nbsp;million loan guarantee to the Corporation in 2009 as part of a program to promote alternative energy growth.<ref name="bare_url">[https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2011/08/solar-energy-company-touted-by-obama-goes-bankrupt/ Solar Energy Company Touted By Obama Goes Bankrupt], ABC News, 31 August 2011</ref><ref>[http://reason.com/archives/2011/09/09/obamas-crony-capitalism Obama's Crony Capitalism], Reason, 9 September 2011</ref> The company ceased all business activity, filed for [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy, and laid-off nearly all of its employees in early September 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Solyndra-Shutting-Down-128802718.html |title=Solyndra to Declare Bankruptcy |publisher=NBC News |date=2 September 2011 |first=Scott |last=McGrew}}</ref><ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PJ89JG0.htm Solyndra files for bankruptcy, looks for buyer] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225041731/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9PJ89JG0.htm |date=25 December 2011 }}. ''Bloomberg Businessweek''. Retrieved: 20 September 2011.</ref>

In his 24 January 2012, [[State of the Union]] address, President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy. Obama said that he "will not walk away from the promise of clean energy." Obama called for a commitment by the Defense Department to purchase 1,000 MW of renewable energy. He also mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012.<ref name="Lindsay Morris">{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/blog/post/2012/01/obama-sticking-to-promise-of-clean-energy |title=Obama: Sticking to "Promise of Clean Energy" |author=Lindsay Morris |date=25 January 2012 |work=Renewable Energy World }}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

As of 2012, renewable energy plays a major role in the energy mix of many countries globally. Renewables are becoming increasingly economic in both developing and developed countries. Prices for renewable energy technologies, primarily wind power and solar power, continued to drop, making renewables competitive with conventional energy sources. Without a level playing field, however, high market penetration of renewables is still dependent on robust promotional policies. Fossil fuel subsidies, which are far higher than those for renewable energy, remain in place and quickly need to be phased out.<ref>REN21. (2013). ''Renewables 2013 Global Status Report'', (Paris: REN21 Secretariat), {{ISBN|978-3-9815934-0-2}}.</ref>

United Nations' Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] has said that "renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/08/u-n-secretary-general-renewables-can-end-energy-poverty |title=U.N. Secretary-General: Renewables Can End Energy Poverty |author=Steve Leone |date=25 August 2011 |work=Renewable Energy World }}</ref> In October 2011, he "announced the creation of a high-level group to drum up support for energy access, energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy. The group is to be co-chaired by Kandeh Yumkella, the chair of UN Energy and director general of the UN Industrial Development Organisation, and Charles Holliday, chairman of Bank of America".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2011/nov/02/human-development-report-renewable-energy |title=UN calls for universal access to renewable energy |author=Mark Tran |date=2 November 2011 |work=The Guardian }}</ref>

Worldwide use of solar power and wind power continued to grow significantly in 2012. Solar electricity consumption increased by 58 percent, to 93 terawatt-hours (TWh). Use of wind power in 2012 increased by 18.1 percent, to 521.3 TWh.<ref name=vitals>{{cite web |url=http://vitalsigns.worldwatch.org/sites/default/files/vital_signs_trend_growth_of_global_solar_and_wind_energy_continues_to_outpace_other_technologies_vital_signs_final_pdf.pdf |title=Growth of Global Solar and Wind Energy Continues to Outpace Other Technologies |author1=Matt Lucky |author2=Michelle Ray |author3=Mark Konold  |name-list-style=amp |date=30 July 2013  |work=Vital Signs }}</ref> Global solar and wind energy installed capacities continued to expand even though new investments in these technologies declined during 2012. Worldwide investment in solar power in 2012 was $140.4&nbsp;billion, an 11 percent decline from 2011, and wind power investment was down 10.1 percent, to $80.3&nbsp;billion. But due to lower production costs for both technologies, total installed capacities grew sharply.<ref name=vitals/> This investment decline, but growth in installed capacity, may again occur in 2013.<ref>Sally Bakewell. "[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-13/clean-energy-investment-headed-for-second-annual-decline.html  Clean Energy Investment Headed for Second Annual Decline]" ''[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]'', 14 October 2013. Accessed: 17 October 2013.</ref><ref>"[http://about.bnef.com/press-releases/global-trends-in-renewable-energy-investment-2013/ Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018001736/http://about.bnef.com/press-releases/global-trends-in-renewable-energy-investment-2013/ |date=18 October 2013 }}" ''[[Bloomberg L.P.#New Energy Finance|Bloomberg New Energy Finance]]'', 12 June 2013. Accessed: 17 October 2013.</ref> Analysts expect the market to triple by 2030.<ref>"[http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2263202/bloomberg-renewables-investment-set-to-triple-by-2030 Renewables investment set to triple by 2030]" ''BusinessGreen'', 23 April 2013. Accessed: 17 October 2013.</ref> In 2015, investment in renewables exceeded fossils.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Randall | first1=Tom |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-14/solar-and-wind-just-did-the-unthinkable |website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |date=14 January 2016| title=Solar and Wind Just Did the Unthinkable }}</ref>

==100% renewable energy==
{{update|section|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Share of electricity production from renewables.svg|thumb|330px|Share of electricity production from renewables, 2022<ref>{{cite web |title=Share of electricity production from renewables |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-electricity-renewables |website=Our World in Data |access-date=15 August 2023}}</ref>]]
{{Main|100% renewable energy}}

The incentive to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by [[global warming]] and other ecological as well as economic concerns. In the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]'s reviews of scenarios of energy usage that would keep global warming to approximately 1.5 degrees, the proportion of [[primary energy]] supplied by renewables increases from 15% in 2020 to 60% in 2050 (median values across all published pathways).{{sfn|SR15 Report|loc=C.2.4.2.1}} The proportion of primary energy supplied by biomass increases from 10% to 27%,{{sfn|SR15 Report|loc=2.4.2.1, Table 2.6.1}} with effective controls on whether land use is changed in the growing of biomass.{{sfn|SR15 Report|p=111}} The proportion from wind and solar increases from 1.8% to 21%.{{sfn|SR15 Report|loc=2.4.2.1, Table 2.6.1}}

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.

[[Mark Z. Jacobson]], professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with [[wind power]], [[solar power]], and [[hydropower]] by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.<ref name=enpol2011>{{cite web |url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/DJEnPolicyPt2.pdf |title=Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies |author1=Mark A. Delucchi  |author2=Mark Z. Jacobson  |name-list-style=amp |year=2011| volume= 39 |work=Energy Policy |pages=1170–1190 |publisher=Elsevier Ltd }}</ref>

Renewable projects must be sited at distant locations due to high land prices in urban areas or for the renewable resource itself which require [[Electric power transmission|transmission]] construction costs.<ref>Hertz-Shargel, Ben. Ensuring Energy Security in a Renewables World. Atlantic Council, 2021. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep31086. Accessed 31 Oct. 2023.</ref>

Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand."<ref name=NRC>{{cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12619|title=Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and Impediments  |author=National Research Council| year=2010|pages=4|publisher=National Academies of Science|isbn=9780309137089 }}</ref>

The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological. According to the 2013 ''Post Carbon Pathways'' report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: [[climate change denial]], the [[fossil fuels lobby]], political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.<ref name="John Wiseman et al">{{cite web |url=http://www.postcarbonpathways.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Post-Carbon-Pathways-Report-2013_Final-V.pdf |title=Post Carbon Pathways |author=John Wiseman |date=April 2013 |work=University of Melbourne |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140620031627/http://www.postcarbonpathways.net.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Post-Carbon-Pathways-Report-2013_Final-V.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Energy efficiency==
{{Main|Efficient energy use}}

Moving towards energy sustainability will require changes not only in the way energy is supplied, but in the way it is used, and reducing the amount of energy required to deliver various goods or services is essential. Opportunities for improvement on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.<ref>

InterAcademy Council (2007). [http://www.interacademycouncil.net/Object.File/Master/12/053/Executive%20Summary.pdf ''Lighting the way: Toward a sustainable energy future''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128074454/http://www.interacademycouncil.net/Object.File/Master/12/053/Executive%20Summary.pdf |date=28 November 2007 }}</ref>

A sustainable energy economy requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency. Renewable energy and [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] are said to be the "twin pillars" of [[sustainable energy]] policy. [[American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy|The American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy]] has explained that both resources must be developed in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions:<ref name=am>

American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (2007).
[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090429195906/http://www.aceee.org/store/proddetail.cfm?CFID=785209&CFTOKEN=22090724&ItemID=432&CategoryID=7 ''The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy''] Report E074.</ref>
<blockquote>
Efficiency is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too fast, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed.<ref name=am />
</blockquote>

The IEA has stated that renewable energy and energy efficiency policies are complementary tools for the development of a sustainable energy future, and should be developed together instead of being developed in isolation.<ref>
International Energy Agency (2007). [http://www.iea.org/Textbase/work/2007/bestpractice/Workshop_Proceedings.pdf ''Global Best Practice in Renewable Energy Policy Making''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603103801/http://www.iea.org/Textbase/work/2007/bestpractice/Workshop_Proceedings.pdf |date=3 June 2016 }}
</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Renewable energy|Global warming|Environment|Energy|Business}}

=== Lists ===
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Lists about renewable energy]]
* [[List of countries by renewable electricity production]]
* [[List of energy storage projects]]
* [[List of large wind farms]]
* [[List of notable renewable energy organizations]]
* [[List of renewable energy topics by country]]
{{div col end}}

=== Topics ===
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Environmental skepticism]]
* [[Catching the Sun (film)]]
* [[Clean Energy Trends]]
* [[Cost of electricity by source]]
* [[Ecotax]]
* [[EKOenergy]]
* [[Energy security and renewable technology]]
* [[Environmental tariff]]
* [[Feed-in Tariff]]
* [[International Renewable Energy Agency]]
* [[PV financial incentives]]
* [[Rocky Mountain Institute]]
* [[The Clean Tech Revolution]]
* [[The Third Industrial Revolution (book)|The Third Industrial Revolution]]
* [[World Council for Renewable Energy]]
{{div col end}}

=== People ===
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Andrew Blakers]]
* [[Richard L. Crowther]]
* [[James Dehlsen]]
* [[Mark Diesendorf]]
* [[Rolf Disch]]
* [[David Faiman]]
* [[Hans-Josef Fell]]
* [[Harrison Fraker]]
* [[Chris Goodall]]
* [[Al Gore]]
* [[Michael Grätzel]]
* [[Martin Green (professor)|Martin Green]]
* [[Jan Hamrin]]
* [[Denis Hayes]]
* [[Tetsunari Iida]]
* [[Mark Z. Jacobson]]
* [[Stefan Krauter]]
* [[Jeremy Leggett]]
* [[Richard Levine (architect)|Richard Levine]]
* [[Amory Lovins]]
* [[Gaspar Makale]]
* [[Joel Makower]]
* [[Eric Martinot]]
* [[David Mills (solar researcher)|David Mills]]
* [[Huang Ming (entrepreneur)|Huang Ming]]
* [[Leonard L. Northrup Jr.]]
* [[Arthur Nozik]]
* [[Monica Oliphant]]
* [[Stanford R. Ovshinsky]]
* [[Luis Palmer]]
* [[Alan Pears]]
* [[Hélène Pelosse]]
* [[Ron Pernick]]
* [[Phil Radford]]
* [[Jeremy Rifkin]]
* [[Hermann Scheer]]
* [[Zhengrong Shi]]
* [[Benjamin K. Sovacool]]
* [[Thomas H. Stoner, Jr.]]
* [[Peter Taylor (environmentalist)|Peter Taylor]]
* [[Félix Trombe]]
* [[John Twidell]]
* [[Martin Vosseler]]
* [[Stuart Wenham]]
* [[Clint Wilder]]
* [[John I. Yellott]]
* [[Elon Musk]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Aitken, Donald W. (2010). ''Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future'', [[International Solar Energy Society]], January, 54 pages.
* Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and [[M.V. Ramana]] et al. [http://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201520 The Frontiers of Energy], ''Nature Energy'', Vol 1, 11 January 2016. 
* EurObserv'ER (2012). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20130603141747/http://www.eurobserv-er.org/pdf/bilan12.asp The state of renewable energies in Europe]'', 250 pages.
* [[HM Treasury]] (2006). ''[[Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change]]'', 575 pages.
* {{wikicite |ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Report}} |reference= [[IPCC]], 2018: ''Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty'' [V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, T. Waterfield (eds.)].}}
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Website}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ Report website] |ref=none}}, chapters I–V
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Summary for policymakers}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_report_LR.pdf Summary for policymakers], 32 pp. |ref=none}}
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Headline statements}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/resources/headline-statements/ Headline statements] |ref=none}}, 2 pp.
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Technical summary}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2018/12/SR15_TS_High_Res.pdf Technical summary] |ref=none}}, 22 pp.
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 FAQ}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2018/12/SR15_FAQ_Low_Res.pdf FAQ] |ref=none}}, 24 pp.
** {{wikicite <!--|ref={{sfnRef|SR15 Glossary}}--> |reference=[https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/02/SR15_AnnexI_Glossary.pdf Glossary] |ref=none}}, 24 pp.
* International Council for Science (c2006). ''Discussion Paper by the Scientific and Technological Community for the 14th session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development'', 17 pages.
* [[International Energy Agency]] (2006). ''World Energy Outlook 2006: Summary and Conclusions'', [[OECD]], 11 pages.
* [[International Energy Agency]] (2007). ''Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet'', OECD, 34 pages.
* [[International Energy Agency]] (2008). ''Deploying Renewables: Principles for Effective Policies'', OECD, 8 pages.
* [[International Energy Agency]] (2011). ''[[Deploying Renewables 2011]]: Best and Future Policy Practice'', OECD.
* [[International Energy Agency]] (2011). ''[[Solar Energy Perspectives]]'', OECD.
* [[Amory B. Lovins|Lovins, Amory B.]] (2011). ''[[Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era]]'', Chelsea Green Publishing, 334 pages.
* [[Joel Makower|Makower, Joel]], and [[Ron Pernick]] and [[Clint Wilder]] (2009). ''[[Clean Energy Trends]] 2009'', [[Clean Edge]].
* [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] (2006). ''Non-technical Barriers to Solar Energy Use: Review of Recent Literature'', Technical Report, NREL/TP-520-40116, September, 30 pages.
*[[Ron Pernick|Pernick, Ron]] and [[Clint Wilder|Wilder, Clint]] (2012). ''[[Clean Tech Nation|Clean Tech Nation: How the U.S. Can Lead in the New Global Economy]]'', HarperCollins.
* {{cite book |date=2009 |title=Renewables Global Status Report: 2009 Update |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2009_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2009}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2010 |title=Renewables 2010 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2010_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2010}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2011 |title=Renewables 2011 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2011_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2011}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2012 |title=Renewables 2012 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2012_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2012}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2013 |title=Renewables 2013 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9815934-0-2 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2013_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2013}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2014 |title=Renewables 2014 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9815934-2-6 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2014_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2014}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2015 |title=Renewables 2015 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9815934-6-4 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2015_Full-Report_English.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2015}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2016 |title=Renewables 2016 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9818107-0-7 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/REN21_GSR2016_FullReport_en_11.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2016}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2017 |title=Renewables 2017 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9818107-6-9 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2017_Full-Report_English.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710065309/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2017_Full-Report_English.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2021 |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2017}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2018 |title=Renewables 2018 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9818911-3-3 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Full-Report-2018.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608165956/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Full-Report-2018.pdf |archive-date=8 June 2021 |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2018}} |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2019 |title=Renewables 2019 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-9818911-7-1 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2019_full_report_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618033853/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2019_full_report_en.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2019}} |archive-date=18 June 2021 |access-date=18 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2020 |title=Renewables 2020 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-948393-00-7 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2020}} |access-date=25 July 2021}}
* {{cite book |date=2021 |title=Renewables 2021 Global Status Report |publisher=REN21 Secretariat |location=Paris |isbn=978-3-948393-03-8 |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|REN21 Renewables Global Status Report|2021}} |access-date=25 July 2021}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Renewable energy economy}}
*[https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-leckey-20110828,0,2237159.story Investing: Green technology has big growth potential], ''LA Times'', 2011
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080102232625/http://www.iea.org/Textbase/pm/grindex.aspx Global Renewable Energy: Policies and Measures]
*[http://www.newsweek.com/id/137501 Missing the Market Meltdown]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120128172123/http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/renewable_energy/2012_priority_projects.html Bureau of Land Management 2012 Renewable Energy Priority Projects]

{{Renewable energy lists}}
{{Renewable energy by country}}
{{Wind power}}
{{Solar energy}}
{{Hydropower}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{environmental technology}}

[[Category:Renewable energy commercialization| ]]
[[Category:Energy policy]]
[[Category:Renewable energy policy| ]]
[[Category:Renewable energy economics| ]]
[[Category:Renewable resources]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]