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{{Short description|Ethical practice in scientific research}}
{{expand Portuguese|date=January 2024|Ética na ciência}}
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'''Research ethics''' is a discipline within the study of [[Ethics|applied ethics]]. Its scope ranges from general [[scientific integrity]] and [[scientific misconduct|misconduct]] to the treatment of human and animal subjects. The societal responsibilities science and reseach has are not traditionally included and less well defined.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Douglas |first=Heather |date=2014 |title=The Moral Terrain of Science |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10670-013-9538-0 |journal=Erkenntnis |language=en |volume=79 |issue=S5 |pages=961–979 |doi=10.1007/s10670-013-9538-0 |issn=0165-0106 |s2cid=144445475}}</ref>  

The discipline is most developed in [[medical research]]. Beyond the issues of falsification, fabrication and plagiarism that arise in every scientific field, [[research design]] in [[human subject research]] and [[animal testing]] are the areas that raise ethical questions themselves most often.

The [[List of medical ethics cases|list of historic cases]] includes many large scale violations and crimes against humanity such as [[Nazi human experimentation]] and the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]] which lead to international codes of research ethics. No approach has been universally accepted,<ref name=":0"></ref><ref name=":1"></ref><ref name=EatonS></ref> but typically cited codes are the 1947 [[Nuremberg Code]], the 1964 [[Declaration of Helsinki]], and the 1978 [[Belmont Report]]. 

Today, [[research ethics committees]], such as those of the [[institutional review board|US]], [[National Research Ethics Service|UK]] and [[Ethics committee (European Union)|EU]], govern and oversee the responsible conduct of research. 

Research in other fields such as [[social sciences]], [[information technology]], [[biotechnology]], or [[engineering]] may generate ethical concerns.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stahl |first1=Bernd Carsten |last2=Timmermans |first2=Job |last3=Flick |first3=Catherine |date=2016-09-19 |title=Ethics of Emerging Information and Communication Technologies |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scw069 |journal=Science and Public Policy |pages=scw069 |doi=10.1093/scipol/scw069 |issn=0302-3427|hdl=2086/12331 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Iphofen |first=Ron |date=2011 |title=Ethical Decision-Making in Social Research |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230233768 |journal=SpringerLink |language=en |doi=10.1057/9780230233768|isbn=978-0-230-29634-3 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wickson |first1=Fern |last2=Preston |first2=Christopher |last3=Binimelis |first3=Rosa |last4=Herrero |first4=Amaranta |last5=Hartley |first5=Sarah |last6=Wynberg |first6=Rachel |last7=Wynne |first7=Brian |date=2017-06-09 |title=Addressing Socio-Economic and Ethical Considerations in Biotechnology Governance: The Potential of a New Politics of Care |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41055-017-0014-4 |journal=Food Ethics |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=193–199 |doi=10.1007/s41055-017-0014-4 |issn=2364-6853|hdl=10871/33650 |s2cid=256465844 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Whitbeck |first=Caroline |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511976339 |title=Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research |date=2011-08-15 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511976339 |isbn=978-0-521-89797-6}}</ref>

==History==
{{Expand section|date=March 2024}}
{{See also|Unethical human experimentation|Ethics committee#History|List of medical ethics cases}}

The [[List of medical ethics cases|list of historic cases]] includes many large scale violations and crimes against humanity such as [[Nazi human experimentation]] and the [[Tuskegee syphilis experiment]] which lead to international codes of research ethics.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Israel |first1=Mark |last2=Allen |first2=G. |last3=Thomson |first3=C. |date=2013 |title=The Rise and Much-Sought Demise of the Adversarial Culture in Australian Research Ethics: Australasian Ethics Network Conference 2013 |url=https://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/the-rise-and-much-sought-demise-of-the-adversarial-culture-in-aus |journal=Proceedings of the 2013 Australasian Ethics Network Conference |volume=N/A |pages=12–27}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Israel |first=Mark |url=https://methods.sagepub.com/book/research-ethics-and-integrity-for-social-scientists-2e |title=Research Ethics and Integrity for Social Scientists: Beyond Regulatory Compliance |date=2015 |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd |isbn=978-1-4739-1009-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=EatonS>{{Cite journal |last=Eaton |first=Sarah Elaine |date=2020 |title=Ethical considerations for research conducted with human participants in languages other than English |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/berj.3623 |journal=British Educational Research Journal |language=en |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=848–858 |doi=10.1002/berj.3623 |issn=0141-1926 |s2cid=216445727}}</ref> Out of centuries of science motivated by results only and general malpractice the [[medical ethics]] developed, which in turn lead to today's more broad understanding in [[bioethics]].<ref>Walter, Klein eds. ''The Story of Bioethics: From seminal works to contemporary explorations''.</ref>

==Scientific conduct==
===Scientific integrity===
{{Excerpt|Scientific integrity}}

===Scientific misconduct===
{{Excerpt|Scientific misconduct}}

==Discipline specific ethics==
{{See also|Guidelines for human subject research}}

Research ethics for [[Human subject research]] and [[Animal testing]] derives, historically, from the [[Medical ethics]] and, in modern times, from the much more broad field of [[Bioethics]].

===Medical ethics===
{{Excerpt|Medical ethics}}

===Bioethics===
{{Excerpt|Bioethics}}

===Clinical research ethics===
====Study participant rights====
Participants of a [[clinical trial]] in [[clinical research]] have rights which they expect to be honored, including:<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beecher|first=Henry K.|title=Ethics and Clinical Research|journal=N Engl J Med|date=June 16, 1966|issue=24|pages=1354–1360|doi=10.1056/NEJM196606162742405|pmid=5327352|volume=274|pmc=2566401}}</ref>

* [[informed consent]]
* [[shared decision-making]]
* [[privacy for research participants]]
* [[return of results]]
* to [[Right to withdraw|withdraw]]

====Vulnerable populations====
Study participants are entitled to some degree of  autonomy in deciding their participation. One measure for safeguarding this right is the use of [[informed consent]] for clinical researches.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mohamadi|first=Amin|last2=Asghari|first2=Fariba|last3=Rashidian|first3=Arash|date=2014|title=Continuing review of ethics in clinical trials: a surveillance study in Iran|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine|volume=7|pages=22|pmc=4648212|pmid=26587202}}</ref> Researchers refer to populations with limited autonomy as "vulnerable populations"; these are subjects who may not be able to fairly decide for themselves whether to participate. Examples of vulnerable populations include [[Incarceration|incarcerated persons]], children, prisoners, soldiers, people under detention, migrants, persons exhibiting [[insanity]] or any other condition which precludes their autonomy, and to a lesser extent, any population for which there is reason to believe that the research study could seem particularly or unfairly persuasive or misleading. [[ethical problems using children in clinical trials|Ethical problems particularly encumber using children in clinical trials]].

==Society==
{{Expand section|date=March 2024}}
Consequences for the environment, for society and for future generations must be considered.

==Governance==
{{Excerpt|Ethics committee}}

* In the United Kingdom, the [[National Research Ethics Service]] is the responsible [[quango]] that forms Research Ethic Committees. 
* In the United States, the [[Institutional review board]] is the relevant ethics committee. 
*In Canada, there are different committees for different agencies. The committees are the Research Ethics Board (REB)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/science-research/science-advice-decision-making/research-ethics-board.html|title=Research Ethics Board: Overview of the Health Canada and Public Health Agency of Canada REB|website=canada.ca|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> as well as two others that split their committee duties between conduct ([[Interagency Advisory Panel on Responsible Conduct of Research|PRCR]]) and ethics committee ([[Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics|PRE]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rcr.ethics.gc.ca/eng/about_us-propos_de_nous.html|title=Panel on Responsible Conduct of Research|author=Secretariat on Responsible Conduct of Research|publisher=Canadian Government}}</ref>
*The European Union only sets the guidelines for its member's [[Ethics committee (European Union)|ethics committees]].
* Large international organizations like the [[WHO]] have their own ethics committees.

In Canada, mandatory research ethics training is required for students, professors and others who work in research.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Stockley |first1=Denise |title=The Course on Research Ethics (CORE): Implications for SoTL |date=2022 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11810-4_1 |work=Ethics and the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning |pages=1–11 |access-date=2024-01-07 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-11809-8 |last2=Wright |first2=Madison|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-11810-4_1 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Khaliq |first=Yasmin |title=Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans |date=November 2002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/9780824706081.150 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Clinical Pharmacy |pages=876–882 |access-date=2024-01-07 |publisher=Informa Healthcare |doi=10.3109/9780824706081.150 |isbn=0-8247-0608-0}}</ref> The US first legislated [[Institutional review board|institutional review boards]] procedures in the 1974 [[National Research Act]].

==Criticism==
Published in ''Social Sciences & Medicine (2009)'' several authors suggested that research ethics in a medical context is dominated by [[principlism]].<ref>Shaw SE, Petchey RP, Chapman J, Abbott S (2009). "A double-edged sword? Health research and research governance in UK primary care." ''Social Science & Medicine'', '''68''': 912-918</ref>

==See also==

*[[List of medical ethics cases]]
*[[Children in clinical research]]
*[[Unethical human experimentation]]
*[[Self-experimentation in medicine]]
*[[Clinical trial]]
*[[Academic freedom]]
*[[Scientific literature#Ethics|Scientific literature § Ethics]]
*[[Psychology#Ethics|Psychology § Ethics]]
*[[Information ethics]]
*[[Regulation of genetic engineering]]
*[[Engineering ethics]]
*[[Ethics of technology]]
*[[Philosophy of engineering]]
*[[Philosophy of science]]

== References ==
<references />

== Sources ==
<!-- Added to support footnotes in excerpt -->
*{{Cite journal |last=Laine |first=Heidi |title=Open science and codes of conduct on research integrity |journal=Informaatiotutkimus |volume=37 |issue=4 |date=31 December 2018 |issn=1797-9129 |doi=10.23978/inf.77414 |url=https://journal.fi/inf/article/view/77414 |access-date=2021-11-11}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Speid|first=Lorna|title=Clinical trials : what patients and healthy volunteers need to know|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-973416-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicaltrialswh00lorn}}
* ''[[The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics]]'', Ezekiel Emanuel, Christine Grady, Robert Crouch, Reidar Lie, Franklin Miller, David Wendler, Oxford University Press, 2008

==External links==
*[http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/research/human-research-administration/for-research-participants/participant-rights/index.html list of research participant rights] from Harvard School of Public Health
{{Research participant rights}}

[[Category:Research|ethics]]
[[Category:Research ethics|Research ethics]]
[[Category:Methodology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]