View source for Stockbridge damper

{{short description|Tuned mass damper used to suppress wind-induced vibrations}}
A '''Stockbridge damper''' is a [[tuned mass damper]] used to suppress wind-induced vibrations on slender structures such as [[overhead power line]]s,<ref>{{citation
|title=Optimum dynamic characteristics of Stockbridge dampers for dead-end spans
|last=Markiewicz |first=M.
|journal=Journal of Sound and Vibration
|volume=188
|issue=2
|date=29 November 1995
|doi=10.1006/jsvi.1995.0589
|pages=243&ndash;256
|bibcode = 1995JSV...188..243M }}</ref> long cantilevered signs<ref name="DOT"/> and [[Cable-stayed bridge|cable-stayed bridges]]. The [[dumbbell]]-shaped device consists of two masses at the ends of a short length of cable or flexible rod, which is clamped at its middle to the main cable. The damper is designed to dissipate the energy of oscillations in the main cable to an acceptable level.<ref name="overhead power lines">
{{citation
|title=Overhead Power Lines
|first=Friedrich |last=Kiessling
|first2=Peter |last2=Nefzger
|first3=Joao F. |last3=Nolasco
|first4=Ulf |last4=Kaintzyk
|publisher=Springer
|year=2003
|pages=311&ndash;312
|isbn=3-540-00297-9}}</ref>
[[File:Morning Mist in Barnsley.JPG|alt=An example photo of Stockbridge dampers hanging under-slung from high voltage wires|thumb|Stockbridge dampers installed on high voltage power lines]]

==Wind-induced oscillation==

Wind can generate three major modes of oscillation in suspended cables:<ref name="orange book">
{{citation
|title=EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book: Wind-Induced Conductor Motion
|publisher=EPRI 1012317
|year=2008
|postscript=<!--none-->}}</ref>
* [[Conductor gallop|Gallop]] has an amplitude measured in metres and a frequency range of 0.08 to 3&nbsp;Hz
* [[Aeolian vibration]] (sometimes termed [[Aeroelastic flutter|flutter]]) has an amplitude of millimetres to centimetres and a frequency of 3 to 150&nbsp;Hz
* [[Wake (physics)|Wake]]-induced vibration has an amplitude of centimetres and a frequency of 0.15 to 10&nbsp;Hz

The Stockbridge damper targets oscillations due to aeolian vibration; it is less effective outside this amplitude and frequency range. Aeolian vibration occurs in the vertical plane and is caused by alternating [[vortex shedding|shedding of vortices]] on the leeward side of the cable. A steady but moderate wind can induce a [[standing wave]] pattern on the line consisting of several wavelengths per span.<ref name="orange book"/> Aeolian vibration causes damaging [[Fatigue (material)|stress fatigue]] to the cable<ref name="McCombe">
{{citation
|title=Overhead Line Practice
|edition = 3rd
|pages=216&ndash;219
|first=John | last=McCombe
|first2=F.R. | last2=Haigh
|publisher=Macdonald
|year=1966
|postscript=<!--none-->}}</ref> and represents the principal cause of failure of conductor strands.<ref name="orange book"/> The ends of a power line span, where it is clamped to the [[transmission tower]]s, are at most risk.<ref name="McCombe"/> The effect becomes more pronounced with increased cable tension,<ref name="McCombe"/> as its natural [[Damping ratio|self-damping]] is reduced.

==Description==
[[File:Stockbridge patent closeup.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stockbridge's original concrete block design]]
The Stockbridge damper was invented in the 1920s by George H. Stockbridge, who was an engineer for [[Southern California Edison]]. Stockbridge obtained US patent 1675391 on 3 July 1928 for a "vibration damper".<ref name=patent_1675391>{{US patent|1675391}}</ref> His patent described three means of damping vibrations on lines: a sack of metal punchings tied to the line; a short length of cable clamped parallel to the main cable; and a short (30&nbsp;in, 75&nbsp;cm) cable with a concrete mass fixed at each end.<ref name=patent_1675391/> This last device developed into the widely used Stockbridge damper.

Vibrations in the main cable were passed down through the clamp and into the shorter damper, or "messenger", cable. This would flex and cause the symmetrically-placed concrete blocks at its ends to oscillate. Careful choice of the mass of the blocks, and the stiffness and length of the damper cable would match the [[mechanical impedance]] of the damper to that of the line, and greatly attenuate oscillation of the main cable. Since Stockbridge dampers were economical, effective and easy to install, they became used routinely on overhead lines.<ref name="McCombe"/> [[Live-line working]] using [[hot stick]] tools meant it was possible to retrofit dampers to lines while energised.<ref name="Wadhwa">{{Citation|last=Wadhwa|first=C.L.|title=Electrical Power Systems|publisher=New Age Publishers|year=2006|pages=169&ndash;170|isbn=978-81-224-1773-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqS9nKmWzssC&pg=PA169|postscript=<!--none-->}}</ref>

==Modern designs==
[[File:Stockbridge damper POV.jpg|thumb|A modern design with metal weights]]
Modern designs use metal bell-shaped weights rather than Stockbridge's concrete blocks. The bell is hollow and the damper cable is fixed internally to the distal end, which permits relative motion between the cable and damping weights.<ref name="Wadhwa" /> To provide for greater freedom of motion, the weights may be partially slotted in the vertical plane, allowing the cable to travel outside the confines of the bell. Some more complex designs use weights with asymmetric mass distribution, which enables the damper to oscillate in several different frequency modes and ranges.<ref name="Kiessling"/><ref>
{{citation
|title=Building aerodynamics
|first=Tom |last=Lawson
|publisher=Imperial College Press
|year=2001
|page=115
|isbn=1-86094-187-7
|postscript=<!--none-->}}
</ref>

[[File:Vibration dampers, Severn Bridge.jpg|thumb|Dogbone dampers on the road-support cables of the [[Severn Bridge]]|alt=]]
Another modern design is the ''Dogbone'' invented by [[Philip Dulhunty]] in 1976{{dubious|date=January 2019}} is so called due to its configuration, a larger metal sphere attached to the end of the damper, with a smaller sphere projecting sideways from it, resembling a dog's bone. The damper offsets the weights sideways in order to introduce a third degree of freedom, twisting the damper cable in addition to bending it up and down.  Additional intra-strand friction was created in the damper cable, dissipating significantly more energy.<ref name="DOT" >{{citation
  |title=Guidelines for the Installation, Inspection, Maintenance and Repair of Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaries, and Traffic Signals
|publisher=US Department of Transportation |date=March 2005 |volume=FHWA NHI 05-36
|url=http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/signinspection04.cfm
|accessdate=12 October 2008
}}</ref><ref name=Dulhunty >{{cite book
  |last=Dunhunty|first=Philip|title=Never a Dull Moment|publisher=Philip Dulhunty|year=2009|pages=280–282
}}</ref>{{verify source|date=January 2020}}
  
The most vulnerable section of the cable is where it is clamped to the end of an [[insulator string]], so dampers are typically installed at the nearest [[anti-node]]s (points of maximum displacement) either side of the clamp.<ref name="Kiessling">
{{citation
|title=High Voltage Engineering and Testing
|first=Friedrich |last=Kiessling
|publisher=IET
|year=2001
|pages=190&ndash;191
|isbn=0-85296-775-6
|postscript=<!--none-->}}</ref> There are thus normally two dampers per span, though more can be installed if necessary on longer spans.<ref name="McCombe"/><ref name="Wadhwa"/>

Overhead transmission lines form a [[catenary]] for which vibration is predominantly in the vertical plane. When more than one plane of vibration is anticipated, Stockbridge dampers may be mounted at right angles to each other. This is common when the cable runs in a vertical or off-horizontal plane, for example in [[cable-stayed bridge]]s or radio mast [[guy-wire]]s.

==See also==
* [[Conductor gallop]]
* [[Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge_(1940)|Tacoma Narrows Bridge]] - destruction once thought to be a case of resonance

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Stockbridge dampers}}
* [http://www.vibrationdata.com/Newsletters/May2006_NL.pdf Vibrationdata article]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080505055908/http://www.newscientist.com/backpage.ns?id=mg19626273.000 "Cable clingers"] ''New Scientist'' Q&A

[[Category:Aerodynamics]]
[[Category:Electric power systems components]]
[[Category:Weights]]