View source for Technology policy

{{short description|Form of policy}}
There are several approaches to defining the substance and scope of '''technology policy'''.

According to the American scientist and policy advisor [[Lewis M. Branscomb]], technology policy concerns the "public means for nurturing those capabilities and optimizing their applications in the service of national goals and interests".<ref name="branscomb1995">Branscomb, L. M. (1995). Confessions of a Technophile. Springer Science & Business Media.</ref> Branscomb defines [[technology]] in this context as "the aggregation of capabilities, facilities, skills, knowledge, and organization required to successfully create a useful service or product".<ref name="branscomb1995" />

Other scholars differentiate between technology policy and [[science policy]], suggesting that the former is about "the support, enhancement and development of technology", while the latter focuses on "the development of science and the training of scientists".<ref>Dodgson, M., & Bessant, J. (1997). "Effective innovation policy: A new approach". ''Long Range Planning'', 30(1), 143.</ref>  Rigas Arvanitis, at the [[Institut de recherche pour le développement]] in France, suggests that "science and technology policy covers all the public sector measures designed for the creation, funding, support and mobilisation of scientific and technological resources".<ref name="arvanitis">Arvanitis, Rigas. ''Science and technology policy''. Eolss Publishers Company Limited, 2009.</ref>

Technology policy is a form of "active [[industrial policy]]", and effectively argues, based on the empirical facts of technological development as observed across various societies, industries and time periods, that markets rarely decide industrial fortunes in and of their own and state-intervention or support is required to overcome standard cases of market-failure (which may include, for example, under-funding of Research & Development in highly competitive or complex markets).<ref name="borris&stowsky1997">Borris, M. & Stowsky, J. (1997). "Technology Policy and Economic Growth". UC Berkeley: Berkeley Roundtable on the International Economy.</ref>

Technology policy may be more broadly defined, and [https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/faculty-research/faculty-a-z/michael-pollitt/ Michael G. Pollitt] offers a [[multidisciplinary approach]] with social science and humanities perspective on "good" policy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=G.|first=Pollitt, M.
 |date=2015-12-02|title=In Search of 'Good' Energy Policy: The Social Limits to Technological Solutions to Energy and Climate Problems|language=en|doi=10.17863/cam.5797|publisher=Apollo
 }}</ref>

==Technology management==

[[Technology management]] at a policy or organisational level, viewed through the lens of complexity, involves the management of an inherently [[complex system]]. Systems that are "complex" have distinct properties that arise from these relationships, such as [[nonlinearity]], [[emergence]], [[spontaneous order]], [[adaptation]], and [[feedback loops]], among others. According to Richard Cook, of the Cognitive technologies Laboratory at the [[University of Chicago]] "Complex systems are intrinsically hazardous systems. All of the interesting systems (e.g. transportation, healthcare, power generation) are inherently and unavoidably hazardous by the own nature. The frequency of hazard exposure can sometimes be changed but the processes involved in the system are themselves intrinsically and irreducibly hazardous. It is the presence of these hazards that drives the creation of defenses against hazard that characterize these systems."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://web.mit.edu/2.75/resources/random/How%20Complex%20Systems%20Fail.pdf |title=Richard I. Cook (2000), "How Complex Systems Fail" |access-date=2020-03-24 |archive-date=2020-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709194039/https://web.mit.edu/2.75/resources/random/How%20Complex%20Systems%20Fail.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The success or failure of organisations or firms depends on the effective management of innovation through technology policy programmes <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C15/E1-30-03-03.pdf |title=Roberto E. Lopez-Martinez, "Management of Technology" |access-date=2020-03-24 |archive-date=2020-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807224920/https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C15/E1-30-03-03.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Technological determinism==
[[Technological determinism]] presumes that a society's [[technology]] drives the development of its social structure and cultural values.<ref name="determinism"/> The term is believed to have been coined by [[Thorstein Veblen]] (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely [[Clarence Ayres]] who was a follower of [[Thorstein Veblen]] and [[John Dewey]]. [[William Ogburn]] was also known for his radical technological determinism.

Viewed through the lens of [[Science policy]], public policy can directly affect the funding of [[capital equipment]], intellectual infrastructure for industrial research, by providing tax incentives, direct funding or indirect support to those organizations who fund, and conduct, research. [[Vannevar Bush]], director of the office of scientific research and development for the U.S. government in July 1945, wrote "Science is a proper concern of government"<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |title=Vannevar Bush (July 1945), "Science, the Endless Frontier" |access-date=2018-04-06 |archive-date=2016-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>  Vannevar Bush directed the forerunner of the [[National Science Foundation]], and his writings directly inspired researchers to invent the [[hyperlink]] and the [[computer mouse]].  The [[DARPA]] initiative to support computing was the impetus for the [[Internet Protocol]] stack. In the same way that scientific consortiums like [[CERN]] for [[high-energy physics]] have a commitment to public knowledge, access to this public knowledge in physics led directly to CERN's sponsorship of development of the [[World Wide Web]] and standard Internet access for all.

The first major elaboration of a technological determinist view of socioeconomic development came from the German philosopher and economist [[Karl Marx]], whose theoretical framework was grounded in the perspective that changes in technology, and specifically [[Productive forces|productive technology]], are the primary influence on human social relations and organizational structure, and that social relations and cultural practices ultimately revolve around the technological and economic base of a given society. Marx's position has become embedded in contemporary society, where the idea that fast-changing technologies alter human lives is all-pervasive.<ref name="determinism">{{cite book |last= Smith & Marx|first= Merrit Roe & Leo |title= Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism|publisher= The MIT Press|date=June 1994|isbn= 978-0262691673}}</ref> 
Although many authors attribute a technologically determined view of human history to Marx's insights, not all Marxists are technological determinists, and some authors question the extent to which Marx himself was a determinist. Furthermore, there are multiple forms of technological determinism.<ref name="Karl Marx and the Three Faces of Technological Determinism, 1990">{{cite journal|last=Bimber|first=Bruce|title=Karl Marx and the Three Faces of Technological Determinism|journal=Social Studies of Science|date=May 1990|volume=20|issue=2|pages=333–351|doi=10.1177/030631290020002006|s2cid=144204186 }}</ref> On the subject of technology as a means to liberation or enslavement, David Cooper wrote, "people myopically impressed by the world as an object of beauty or worship die out. Those who are myopically impressed by it as a source of energy do not: they even prosper".<ref name="cooper">{{cite journal |author1=David E. Cooper |title=Technology: Liberation or Enslavement? |journal=Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements |date=March 1995 |volume=38 |pages=7–18 |doi= 10.1017/S1358246100007256 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|s2cid=143123119 }}</ref>

Although technological determinists believe in the continuous innovation of technology, many scientists believe that this innovation should be slowed down.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/05/14/how-frightened-should-we-be-of-ai|title=How Frightened Should We Be of A.I.?|last=Friend|first=Tad|magazine=The New Yorker|date=2018-05-07|access-date=2019-11-27|language=en|issn=0028-792X|archive-date=2021-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518034227/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/05/14/how-frightened-should-we-be-of-ai|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, with [[artificial intelligence]] gaining prominence throughout society, scientists fear that its potential of developing the cognitive skills of humans could force many individuals out of jobs and even put the lives of innocent people in danger.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://interestingengineering.com/artificial-intelligence-and-the-fear-of-the-unknown|title=Artificial Intelligence and the Fear of the Unknown|date=2019-03-04|website=interestingengineering.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624222011/https://interestingengineering.com/artificial-intelligence-and-the-fear-of-the-unknown|url-status=live}}</ref> Most famously, scientist and entrepreneur [[Elon Musk]] has is very public with the current progression of computing and AI; he believes that the fast rate at which artificial intelligence become smarter will place man in a vulnerable position where these newly created AI algorithms will identify humans as being expendable.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2018/11/2/18053418/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-google-deepmind-openai|title=Why Elon Musk fears artificial intelligence|last=Piper|first=Kelsey|date=2018-11-02|website=Vox|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2021-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423095445/https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2018/11/2/18053418/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-google-deepmind-openai|url-status=live}}</ref> Although extreme, Musk and many other remain cautious around the progression of artificial intelligence and other technological advances that may render the power of man and do the opposite of technological determinism by destroying societies.<ref name=":10" />

==Technology policy and economics==
Technology policy takes an "evolutionary approach" to technical change, and hereby relates to evolutionary growth theory, developed by [[Luigi Pasinetti]], J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others, building on the early work of [[David Ricardo]].<ref>Pasinetti, Luisi 1981 ''Structural change and economic growth'', Cambridge University Press. J.S. Metcalfe and P.P. Saviotti (eds.), 1991, ''Evolutionary Theories of Economic and Technological Change'', Harwood, 275 pages. J.S. Metcalfe 1998, ''Evolutionary Economics and Creative Destruction'', Routledge, London. Frenken, K., Van Oort, F.G., Verburg, T., Boschma, R.A. (2004). ''Variety and Regional Economic Growth in the Netherlands – Final Report'' (The Hague: Ministry of Economic Affairs), 58 p. (pdf)</ref><ref>{{citation | doi = 10.1007/s00191-007-0081-5 | title = Export variety and the economic performance of countries | year = 2008 | last1 = Saviotti | first1 = Pier Paolo | last2 = Frenken | first2 = Koen | journal = [[Journal of Evolutionary Economics]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–218 | hdl = 1874/387420 | s2cid = 154150526 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> [[J.S. Metcalfe]] noted in 1995 that "much of the traditional economic theory of technology policy is concerned with so-called '[[market failure]]s' which prevent the attainment of [[Pareto efficiency|Pareto equilibria]] by violating one or other of die conditions for [[perfect competition]]".<ref>Metcalfe, J.S., 1995. "Technology systems and technology policy in an evolutionary framework". ''Cambridge Journal of Economics'', 19(1), pp.25-46.</ref>

In contrast to the evolutionary paradigm, classic [[political science]] teaches technology as a static "black box". Similarly, [[neoclassical economics]] treats technology as a residual, or exogenous factor,  to explain otherwise inexplicable growth (for example, shocks in supply that boost production, affecting the equilibrium price level in an economy). In the United States, the creation of the U.S. [[Office of Science and Technology Policy]] responded to the need policy approaches wherein not all technologies were treated as identical based on their social or economic variables. Technology policy is distinct from [[science studies]] but both have been influenced by [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn]]. Research in the technology policy domain recognizes the importance of, amongst others, [[Vannevar Bush]], [[Moses Abramovitz]], [[William J. Abernathy]] and [[James M. Utterback]].

Technology policy approaches science as the pursuit of verifiable or falsifiable hypotheses, while science studies has a [[Postmodernism|post-modern]] view whereby science is not thought to get at an objective reality. Technology policy is rarely post-modern. Its goal is the improvement of policy and organizations based on an evolutionary view, and understanding, of the underlying scientific and technological constraints involved in economic development, but also their potential. For example, some [[clean coal technology|clean coal technologies]] via [[carbon sequestration]] and [[Spectrum management|allocating electromagnetic spectrum]] by [[Spectrum auction|auction]] are ideas that emerged from technology policy schools. The [[Dominant design]] paradigm, developed by [[William J. Abernathy]] and [[James M. Utterback]], is an idea with significant implications for innovation, market structure and competitive dynamics both within and between nations that emerged from empirical research in [[technology management]], a domain of technology policy.

== Regulating the internet ==
In the United States, [[net neutrality]] has been greatly discussed in politics; the idea of it is that corporations, governments, and internet providers should not discriminate against content on the internet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/net-neutrality.asp|title=Net Neutrality|last=Kenton|first=Will|website=Investopedia|language=en|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2019-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104170306/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/net-neutrality.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> This came about in the early 2000s when some internet providers such as [[Comcast]] and [[AT&T]] were restricting its customers from doing this like accessing [[virtual private network]] (VPNs) and using [[Wi-Fi]] [[Router (computing)|routers]]. The term "net neutrality" was created by [[Tim Wu]], a [[Columbia University]] law professor, who called for net neutrality laws due to his concern that restricting certain internet access would greatly inhibit long-term innovation.<ref name=":4">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|title=Net Neutrality: Here's Everything You Need To Know|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130110100/https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly after in 2005, the [[Federal Communications Commission|Federal Communications Commission (FCC)]], under the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]], issued a policy statement restricted providers from disallowing users to access legal content on the internet while allowing American citizens to freely connect their devices to whichever internet connections they desire.<ref name=":4" /> Shortly after its creation, the FCC began enforcing these new rules when in 2005 it found a North Carolina internet provider, Madison River, guilty of interrupting internet phone calls: the FCC dealt the company fines and demanded Madison River to halt its unlawful actions.<ref name=":52">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/amp-stories/net-neutrality-timeline|title=A Brief History of Net Neutrality|magazine=WIRED|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2020-08-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821021352/https://www.wired.com/amp-stories/net-neutrality-timeline/|url-status=live}}</ref>

It wasn't long until this policy statement's authority came into question when in 2008 [[Comcast Corp. v. FCC|Comcast sued the FCC]]. A federal court found that the FCC did not have the legal power to enforce the 2005 policy statement when they attempted to restrict Comcast from slowing its customers' connection to [[BitTorrent]] due to it greatly contributing to piracy.<ref name=":42">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|title=Net Neutrality: Here's Everything You Need To Know|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130110100/https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|url-status=live}}</ref> This did not greatly impact the FCC's power, however, because in 2009 it forced [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and AT&T to discontinue restricting its customers from making Skype calls.<ref name=":52"/> With the Comcast case looming over the FCC, it desired to restructure its rules to make them stronger in court and in 2010, under the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]], it did just that.   

However, under this new legislation, [[Verizon Communications|Verizon]] filed another lawsuit against the FCC, and again, the federal court found that, under Title II of the [[Communications Act of 1934|Communications Act]], that the FCC did not have the jurisdiction to regulate corporations who are not "[[common carrier]]s".<ref name=":43">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality|title=Net Neutrality: Here's Everything You Need To Know|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130110100/https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|url-status=live}}</ref> To address this issue, the former FCC-chair [[Tom Wheeler]] decided to deem broadband carriers, like Verizon, to be "Title II carriers" enabling the agency to regulate them which then sparked the passing of a new net neutrality order in 2015. Still receiving lawsuits from many corporations, the new order finally held strong in federal court when the court declared that the agency's new rules were in fact under the authority of the FCC.<ref name=":43" />

Under the [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]], President [[Donald Trump]] appointed [[Ajit Pai]] as the new FCC chairman in January 2017 which lead to the voting out of the 2015 policy order in December 2017; under the new regulation, the rules of the 2015 order were dropped entirely and the regulation stated that broadband carriers were only required to publicly reveal how they were managing their networks.<ref name=":44">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality|title=Net Neutrality: Here's Everything You Need To Know|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130110100/https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/|url-status=live}}</ref> Supporters of this new regulation claim that in reversing the former net neutrality policy, networks and internet providers will have more incentive to innovate and improve their networks by charging large companies for internet usage and introducing competition.<ref>{{Cite web| url= https://www.itpro.co.uk/go/28115|title=The pros and cons of net neutrality|last1=Hellard|first1=Bobby|last2=Curtis|first2=Joe|website=IT PRO|language=en|access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref> In October 2019, a federal appeals court ruled that the FCC's reversal of the 2015 policy order that imposed regulations was in fact lawful.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/technology/net-neutrality-repeal-broadband.html|title=Court Upholds Net Neutrality Repeal, With Some Caveats|last=McCabe|first=David|date=2019-10-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2019-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217152155/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/01/technology/net-neutrality-repeal-broadband.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Surveillance and censorship ==
One way governments use technology policy to their benefit is through the [[mass surveillance]] of its citizens.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eff.org/issues/mass-surveillance-technologies|title=Surveillance Technologies|website=Electronic Frontier Foundation|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2016-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426070552/https://www.eff.org/issues/mass-surveillance-technologies|url-status=live}}</ref> Nations around the globe use these technologies and certain polices to listen to people's phone calls, read emails and text messages, track citizens' GPS, and many more actions claiming to be improving national safety for their country.<ref name=":8" />

However, some nations will abuse their power of mass surveillance and inhibit the freedom of its citizens.<ref name=":8" /> Here are a few examples of nations currently employing mass surveillance:
{| class="wikitable"
!Name of Country
!Examples of surveillance
|-
|[[China]]
|
'''Internet surveillance'''
* In 2018, the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] requires major companies ([[Alibaba Group|Alibaba]], [[Baidu]], [[ByteDance]], and [[Tencent]]) to track information on citizens' activity on blog posts, chat rooms, short video platforms and webcasts<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cpomagazine.com/data-privacy/china-steps-up-internet-surveillance-by-recording-user-activities|title=China Steps Up Internet Surveillance by Recording User Activities|date=2018-12-19|website=CPO Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019140225/https://www.cpomagazine.com/data-privacy/china-steps-up-internet-surveillance-by-recording-user-activities/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* China prompts its citizens to delete "dangerous content" off of their devices and grants access only to approved applications and content<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-china-is-watching-its-citizens-in-a-modern-surveillance-state-2018-4|title=China is building a vast civilian surveillance network — here are 10 ways it could be feeding its creepy 'social credit system'|last=Ma|first=Alexandra|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2018-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111225924/https://www.businessinsider.com/how-china-is-watching-its-citizens-in-a-modern-surveillance-state-2018-4|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Chinese companies are required to hand over data to the government at a moments notice<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-tech-giants-have-a-second-job-helping-the-government-see-everything-1512056284|title=China's Tech Giants Have a Second Job: Helping Beijing Spy on Its People|last=Chin|first=Liza Lin and Josh|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=30 November 2017|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-11-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127102659/https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-tech-giants-have-a-second-job-helping-the-government-see-everything-1512056284|url-status=live}}</ref>
'''Video surveillance'''
* Under legislation, China monitors its people using thousands of cameras that use AI and facial recognition to track the actions of its people<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/china-facial-recognition-technology-works-in-one-second-2018-3|title=Parts of China are using facial recognition technology that can scan the country's entire population in one second|last=Chan|first=Tara Francis|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711041322/https://www.businessinsider.com/china-facial-recognition-technology-works-in-one-second-2018-3|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Chinese law enforcement wears facial-recognition glasses capable of scanning and identifying civilians in just a few seconds<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/china-police-using-facial-recognition-glasses-2018-2|title=Chinese police are using facial-recognition glasses to scan travelers|last=Chan|first=Tara Francis|website=Business Insider|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917232100/https://www.businessinsider.com/china-police-using-facial-recognition-glasses-2018-2|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[India]]
|
'''Telecommunications surveillance'''
* Under legislation, the Indian government is able to intercept telecommunications, with certain checks and balances that prevent a misuse of these actions. However, these written down rules are not clear and it is not clear if the government follows these rules<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://privacyinternational.org/long-read/1165/state-surveillance-india|title=State of Surveillance in India|website=Privacy International|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026213106/https://www.privacyinternational.org/long-read/1165/state-surveillance-india|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[Iran]]
|
'''Internet censorship'''
* In November 2019, the [[Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Iranian government]] shut off internet and mobile data access to more than 80 million of its citizens due to widespread protest against rising gasoline prices to restrict communication<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/iran-internet-shutoff/|title=How Iran's Government Shut Off the Internet|last=Newman|first=Lily|date=2019-11-17|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-27|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191124045952/https://www.wired.com/story/iran-internet-shutoff/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* With protests and rallies against the government sparking in 2018, the Iranian government has gone threw waves of internet shutdowns on many popular social media sites and regional slowdowns in order to discourage civilian communication<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cigionline.org/articles/what-you-need-know-about-internet-censorship-iran|title=What You Need to Know about Internet Censorship in Iran|website=Centre for International Governance Innovation|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2020-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124164741/https://www.cigionline.org/articles/what-you-need-know-about-internet-censorship-iran|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|[[North Korea]]
|
'''Internet and information restrictions'''
* North Korea's leader [[Kim Jong-un|Kim Jong Un]] controls all public information while serving harsh punishments for individuals who attempt to access content outside of these restrictions<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/north-korean-censorship_b_58fe78afe4b086ce58981445|title=North Korean Censorship|last=Jerreat|first=Jessica|date=2017-04-24|website=HuffPost|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2020-04-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425082327/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/north-korean-censorship_b_58fe78afe4b086ce58981445|url-status=live}}</ref>
* With the regime owning all news outlets, North Korea regulates and limits which kinds of information its citizens have access to with some looser restrictions being applied to elites and university students<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cjfe.org/north_korea_exposed_censorship_in_the_world_s_most_secretive_state|title=North Korea exposed: Censorship in the world's most secretive state|last=Sedaghat|first=Nouran|date=2014-03-17|website=CJFE {{!}} Canadian Journalists for Free Expression|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327195133/https://www.cjfe.org/north_korea_exposed_censorship_in_the_world_s_most_secretive_state|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The government gives its people radio and television sets that only have access to government stations with these radio devices needing regular registrations with the police<ref name=":9" />
|-
|[[United States]]
|
'''Telecommunications and internet surveillance'''
* Under the [[FISA Amendment Act]] passed in 2008 by [[George W. Bush|President Bush]], the NSA's power to monitor citizens' electronic communications had been largely expanded and allows them monitor individuals contact with foreigners while also permitting the government to conduct surveillance on people without probable cause<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/fact-sheet/documents-confirm-how-nsas-surveillance-procedures-threaten-americans-privacy|title=Documents Confirm How the NSA's Surveillance Procedures Threaten Americans' Privacy|website=American Civil Liberties Union|language=en|access-date=2019-11-27|archive-date=2019-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125085301/https://www.aclu.org/fact-sheet/documents-confirm-how-nsas-surveillance-procedures-threaten-americans-privacy|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

== The call for technology policy ==

=== In politics ===
With the prevalence of technology throughout the 2000s, its power in politics have raised concerns about the speed of technological change and difficulty in regulating it.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/4ce9dcab5248456da4d3267c2a33fd26|title=Voters raise concerns about voting machines, poll access|last1=Cassidy|first1=Christina|last2=Hartounian|first2=Alaina|date=2018-11-02|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2020-09-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200908091245/https://apnews.com/4ce9dcab5248456da4d3267c2a33fd26|url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 U.S. presidential election]], Neil Jenkins, the director in the Office of Cybersecurity and Communications at the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]], revealed that [[Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections|Russian government actors had hacked]] into the [[Democratic National Committee]]'s servers to steal some of their information against the Republican candidate [[Donald Trump]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html|title=The Crisis of Election Security|last=Zetter|first=Kim|date=2018-09-26|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2019-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016012405/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Russian infiltrators did not stop there, when new information showed that someone attempted to breach the election system by viewing the state's [[Voter registration in the United States|voter-registration]] database and stealing information on the registered voters.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html|title=The Crisis of Election Security|last=Zetter|first=Kim|date=2018-09-26|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2019-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016012405/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/26/magazine/election-security-crisis-midterms.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, Arizona received cyber-attacks from the same [[IP address]]es that had been used in the previous Illinois attacks to install malware. Not long after, Jenkins found that many other states had received attacks from this same IP address<ref name=":02" /> and reports from the Senate Intelligence Committee that concluded Russia targeted every U.S. state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/25/us/politics/russian-hacking-elections.html|title=Russia Targeted Election Systems in All 50 States, Report Finds|last1=Sanger|first1=David E.|date=2019-07-25|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-16|last2=Edmondson|first2=Catie|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2019-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727201549/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/25/us/politics/russian-hacking-elections.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Given the breaches in the many different election systems in throughout the 2016 election, political figures nationwide have taken a firm stance against using [[electronic voting]] machines to avoid any future interference. One organization that leads the push toward U.S. paper voting is the [[Verified Voting Foundation]]; the foundation and its members believe that in order to protect the safety of U.S. elections in the future, government officials must be connected with experts in the field of technology to ensure unsecured and unreliable voting machines are not being used in the electoral process.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.verifiedvoting.org/about-vvf|title=Verified Voting Foundation {{!}} Verified Voting|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2020-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414032729/https://www.verifiedvoting.org/about-vvf/|url-status=live}}</ref> One of the board of directors, [[Barbara Simons|Barbra Simons]], has gone as far to proclaiming that voting machines should be forbidden from U.S. elections as she, and many of her colleagues agree, that any data available online is subject to attack.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/12/guardian-of-the-vote/544155/|title=Meet the Computer Scientist Championing Paper Ballots|last=Leovy|first=Jill|date=2017-11-08|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2019-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724111226/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/12/guardian-of-the-vote/544155/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Also in the 2016 election, the data firm [[Cambridge Analytica]] became heavily involved with the enacting of Donald Trump as the 45th president of the United States when his Trump campaign hired the firm to guide the data-collecting process of it. Cambridge Analytica managed to scrape data on over 50 million users that detailed the users' personal information.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/facebook-cambridge-analytica-explained.html|title=Facebook and Cambridge Analytica: What You Need to Know as Fallout Widens|last=Granville|first=Kevin|date=2018-03-19|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2018-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019022301/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/facebook-cambridge-analytica-explained.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The data originated from [[Aleksandr Kogan (scientist)|Aleksandr Kogan]], a former psychology professor at the [[University of Cambridge]], who gave Cambridge Analytica by using a data-extracting technique utilized at the university in which users filled out a personality survey and download an app.<ref name=":1" />

With this data, the company created personality profiles for the users and mapped their trends in likes and friends to direct certain ads toward the user.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/facebook-cambridge-analytica-explained.html|title=Facebook and Cambridge Analytica: What You Need to Know as Fallout Widens|last=Granville|first=Kevin|date=2018-03-19|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-16|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2018-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181019022301/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/facebook-cambridge-analytica-explained.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Considering that 62% of adults receive their news on social networks like [[Facebook]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allcott|first=Hunt|date=Spring 2017|title=Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=31|issue=2|pages=211–236|doi=10.1257/jep.31.2.211|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cambridge Analytica influenced the result of the election which leaves many wondering what role big data should have in the electoral process. Due to the influence that big data had in this election, the call to limit access to it and its usage has sparked a movement toward creating policy to restrict companies access to data called the "Great Privacy Awakening".<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/cambridge-analytica-facebook-privacy-awakening|title=How Cambridge Analytica Sparked the Great Privacy Awakening|last=Lapowsky|first=Issie|date=2019-03-17|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2019-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108051022/https://www.wired.com/story/cambridge-analytica-facebook-privacy-awakening/|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2018, [[California]] enacted the [[California Consumer Privacy Act]], which states that companies must declassify what sort of data they collect and grant users the option to delete data.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/california-bringing-law-order-big-data-it-could-change-internet-n1005061|title=California is bringing law and order to big data. It could change the internet in the U.S.|last1=Farivar|first1=Cyrus|last2=Ingram|first2=David|date=2019-05-13|website=NBC News|language=en|access-date=2019-11-20|archive-date=2019-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024021951/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/california-bringing-law-order-big-data-it-could-change-internet-n1005061|url-status=live}}</ref> This leaves the rest of the U.S. watching to see the effectiveness of the California law in hopes to further protect U.S. citizens from becoming a victim to more unethical data practices.   

=== In everyday life ===
Many technological interventions in the everyday lives of citizens<ref>{{cite web |title=What is 'Tech Policy' |url=https://www.washingtech.org/technology-policy-issues |website=Washington Center for Technology Policy |publisher=Washington Center for Technology Policy - WashingTech |access-date=2023-03-07 |archive-date=2023-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308025653/https://www.washingtech.org/technology-policy-issues |url-status=live }}</ref>  are raising concern for the future of regulation.

==== Self-driving cars ====
[[Self-driving car]]s has grabbed the attention of many, including rideshare company [[Uber]]; in March 2018, the company tested an [[Artificial intelligence|AI]]-driven vehicle in [[Tempe, Arizona]], and during this test the vehicle struck and killed a 49-year-old woman.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/11/06/uber_self_driving_car_death/|title=Remember the Uber self-driving car that killed a woman crossing the street? The AI had no clue about jaywalkers|last=at 05:48|first=Katyanna Quach 6 Nov 2019|website=www.theregister.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2019-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111133922/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/11/06/uber_self_driving_car_death/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Uber self-driving car2.jpg|thumb|left|A prototype of an autonomous Uber vehicle used in tests nationwide, including the one in Phoenix, Arizona that killed a civilian. |292x292px]]In this test, the self-driving vehicle was monitored by an Uber employee who they deemed a "watchdog".<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/11/06/uber_self_driving_car_death|title=Remember the Uber self-driving car that killed a woman crossing the street? The AI had no clue about jaywalkers|last=at 05:48|first=Katyanna Quach 6 Nov 2019|website=The Register|language=en|access-date=2019-11-19|archive-date=2019-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111133922/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/11/06/uber_self_driving_car_death/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was later revealed that the reasoning for the accident had been due to an issue with the programming of the vehicle's AI; the company failed to create code capable of detecting jaywalkers. Rather than classifying the jaywalking pedestrian as a human, the code defined the woman as "other" which the code did not have a protocol to perform under; it wasn't until 1.2 seconds before impact that the code detected a bicycle and alerted the vehicle to brake that the car began to slow down which was too late to avoid the accident.<ref name=":22" />

It was later determined by an investigation conducted by the [[National Transportation Safety Board]] (NTSB) that the Uber "watchdog" had been distracted by their mobile device;<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/uber-self-driving-car-unit-190740140.html|title=Fatal Self-Driving Uber Crash Prompts Call for Tighter Oversight|last=Beene|first=Ryan|date=2019-11-19|website=finance.yahoo.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-11-16|archive-date=2019-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120111856/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/uber-self-driving-car-unit-190740140.html|url-status=live}}</ref> this news called for the U.S. government to create policy to protect citizens from further incidents. In result, the NTSB released new regulation that required companies testing autonomous vehicles on public roads to have their safety procedures thoroughly inspected and hand-recorded which would be subject to regulatory confirmation.<ref name=":3" />

==== Drones ====
[[File:Drone over a beach (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|A civil drone with a live-recording camera that many individuals fear are encroaching on their privacy rights.|280x280px]]

Another emerging technology that has captivated individuals worldwide are the civil use of drones. These drones are aerial vehicles controlled from a secondary device like a remote control or cell phone that are commonly equipped with a camera uploading video to the user's device in real time, which has raised concerns about their safety and privacy of them. Many believe that these flying drones intrude on an individual's [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth amendment]] right that protects an individual's privacy while others believe that the drones pose a threat of collisions with other aircraft.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/technology/guide-to-civilian-drones.html,%20https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/technology/guide-to-civilian-drones.html|title=A Field Guide to Civilian Drones| last =Wingfield| first=Nick|date=2015-11-23|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In response to such concerns, in December 2015 the [[Federal Aviation Administration|Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)]] created rules that stated owners of these civil drones must register them with the FAA while individual states have enforced stricter laws that restrict them from certain public areas.<ref name=":6" />

This innovation has also attracted the attention of corporations, like [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], wishing to perfect their operations; in a proposed plan to commercialize drone delivery, the company has created prototypes of Amazon Prime Air drones built to deliver packages to customers in 30 minutes or less.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/with-prime-air-amazon-wants-to-deliver-packages-in-30-minutes-or-less-via-drone|title=With a Fleet of Drones, Amazon Wants To Deliver Packages Within 30 Minutes or Less|last=Coombs|first=Casey|date=2019-09-03|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en|archive-date=2019-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910192201/https://www.thedailybeast.com/with-prime-air-amazon-wants-to-deliver-packages-in-30-minutes-or-less-via-drone|url-status=live}}</ref> With a vision of hundreds of AI-driven drones flying freely to households nationwide, many opponents of such innovations have privacy concerns, including [[Marc Rotenberg]], the president of the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/22/technology/drone-rules-commercial-use-faa.html|title=F.A.A. Issues Commercial Drone Rules|last=Kang|first=Cecilia|date=2016-06-21|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-20|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2019-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527101007/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/22/technology/drone-rules-commercial-use-faa.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

With these concerns in mind, in June 2016 the FAA released federal policy that made using drones much easier; companies would be able to fly drones under 55 pounds if they were operated by a person over 16 years old, flown below 400 feet, and were 5 miles away from an airport.<ref name=":7" /> Although companies could use these drones, the FAA failed to allow drones to be used for commercial package delivery due to the restriction that the drone must stay in-sight of the operator.<ref name=":7" />

==Policy schools==

The study of technology policy, [[technology management]] or '''engineering and policy''' is taught at multiple universities.

===Engineering===
* [http://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/programmes/mphil_techpol/index.html MPhil in Technology Policy] at [[University of Cambridge]], [[Judge Business School]] and [[Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge]], United Kingdom (born out of the [[Cambridge–MIT Institute]])
* [http://tpp.mit.edu/ MSc in Technology and Policy] and [http://esd.mit.edu/ Engineering and Systems Division] at [[MIT]]
* [http://www.epp.cmu.edu/ Engineering and Public Policy] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [https://sites.tufts.edu/cybersecurityandpublicpolicy/ms-program/ MS in Cybersecurity and Public Policy] at [[The Fletcher School at Tufts University]]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/dept/MSandE/ Department of Engineering-Economic Systems and Operations Research] at [[Stanford]]
* [http://in3.dem.ist.utl.pt/ Centre for Innovation Policy and Technology Research] at [[IST-Lisbon]]  in Portugal
* [http://www.tbm.tudelft.nl/en/ Technology, Policy and Management] at [[TU Delft]] in the Netherlands
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130222070154/http://www.stonybrook.edu/est/index.html Department of Technology & Society] at [[Stony Brook University]]
* [http://www.rit.edu/cla/publicpolicy/academics/bsms-overview BS/MS in Engineering/Science Technology, and Public Policy] at [[Rochester Institute of Technology]], Rochester, NY

===Information technology===
* [http://heinz.cmu.edu/ Heinz College of Information Systems and Public Policy] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
* [https://citp.princeton.edu/ The Center of Information Technology Policy] at [[Princeton University]]
* [http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/ School of Information] at [[University of California at Berkeley]]
* [http://www.informatics.indiana.edu/ Informatics] at [[Indiana University at Bloomington]]
* [http://www.si.umich.edu/ School of Information] at [[University of Michigan]]
* [http://ist.psu.edu/ Penn State College of Information Sciences and Technology]

===Science and technology===
* [[SPRU|SPRU-Science and Technology Policy Research]]
* [http://stps.metu.edu.tr/ METU-Science and Technology Policy Studies]
* [http://www.rit.edu/cla/publicpolicy/academics/science-technology-and-public-policy-ms MS in Science, Technology and Public Policy] at [[Rochester Institute of Technology]], Rochester, NY
* [http://www.spp.gatech.edu/ School of Public Policy] at [[Georgia Institute of Technology|Georgia Tech]]
* School for the Future of Innovation in Society at [[Arizona State University]]

== See also ==
* [[Artificial intelligence and law]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
* [[Net neutrality]]
* [[President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology]]
* [[President's Science Advisory Committee]]
* [[Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles]]
* [[Technology management]]
* [[Telecommunications policy of the United States]]
* [[Intellectual property policy]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* The New Economics of Technology Policy Auth Dominique Foray Ed Edward Elgar {{ISBN|978 1 84844 349 5}}
* Mastering a New Role Shaping Technology Policy for National Economic Performance ED. NAP {{ISBN|0-309-58407-8}}
* Technology and Global Industry Companies and Nations in the World Economy ED. NAP {{ISBN|0-309-55501-9}}

==External links==
* [http://www.linkedin.com/groups?mostPopular=&gid=3689764 Technology Policy Group in LinkedIn]

{{Public policy}}
{{Science and technology studies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Innovation economics]]
[[Category:Technology in society]]
[[Category:Science policy]]