Emotional labor

Not to be confused with Emotion work.

Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job.<ref name="Hochschild Book">Hochschild, Arlie Russell (1983). The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05454-7.</ref><ref>Grandey, Alicia A. (2000). "Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 5 (1): 59–100. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.95. PMID 10658889. S2CID 18404826.</ref> More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their personas during interactions with customers, co-workers, clients, and managers. This includes analysis and decision-making in terms of the expression of emotion, whether actually felt or not, as well as its opposite: the suppression of emotions that are felt but not expressed. This is done so as to produce a certain feeling in the customer or client that will allow the company or organization to succeed.<ref name="Hochschild Book" />

Roles that have been identified as requiring emotional labor include those involved in education, public administration, law, childcare, health care, social work, hospitality, media, advocacy, and espionage.<ref>Hochschild, Arlie Russell (2012), "Preface to the 2012 edition", in Hochschild, Arlie Russell (ed.), The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. x, ISBN 978-0-520-27294-1</ref> As particular economies move from a manufacturing to a service-based economy, more workers in a variety of occupational fields are expected to manage their emotions according to employer demands when compared to sixty years ago.

Definition

A waitress at a restaurant is expected to do emotional labor, such as smiling and expressing positive emotion towards customers

The sociologist Arlie Hochschild provided the first definition of emotional labor, which is displaying certain emotions to meet the requirements of a job.<ref name="Hochschild Book" /> The related term emotion work (also called "emotion management") refers to displaying certain emotions for personal purposes, such as within the private sphere of one's home or interactions with family and friends. Hochschild identified three emotion regulation strategies: cognitive, bodily, and expressive.<ref name="Hochschild Article">Hochschild, Arlie Russell (November 1979). "Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure" (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 85 (3): 551–575. doi:10.1086/227049. JSTOR 2778583. S2CID 143485249. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-11-21.</ref> Within cognitive emotion work, one attempts to change images, ideas, or thoughts in hopes of changing the feelings associated with them.<ref name="Hochschild Article" /> For example, one may associate a family picture with feeling happy and think about said picture whenever attempting to feel happy. Within bodily emotion work, one attempts to change physical symptoms in order to create a desired emotion.<ref name="Hochschild Article" /> For example, one may attempt deep breathing in order to reduce anger. Within expressive emotion work, one attempts to change expressive gestures to change inner feelings, such as smiling when trying to feel happy.<ref name="Hochschild Article" />

While emotion work happens within the private sphere, emotional labor is emotion management within the workplace according to employer expectations. Jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those that:

1. require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public.
2. require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person.
3. allow the employer, through training and supervision, to exercise a degree of control over the emotional activities of employees.<ref name="Hochschild Book" />

Hochschild (1983) argues that within this commodification process, service workers are estranged from their own feelings in the workplace.<ref name="Hochschild Book" />

Alternate usage

The term has been applied in modern contexts to refer to household tasks, specifically unpaid labor that is often expected of women, e.g. having to remind their partner of chores.<ref>Wilkinson, Sophie (21 December 2018). "Why was everyone talking about emotional labour in 2018?". BBC. Retrieved 9 June 2020.</ref> The term can also refer to informal counseling, such as providing advice to a friend or helping someone through a breakup.<ref>Fessler, Leah (24 May 2018). "An extremely clear definition of emotional labor for anyone who still doesn't get it". Quartz. Retrieved 9 June 2020.</ref> When Hochschild was interviewed about this shifting usage, she described it having undergone concept creep, expressing that it made the concept blurrier and was sometimes being applied to things that were simply just labor, although how carrying out this labor made a person feel could make it emotional labor as well.<ref>Beck, Julie (26 November 2018). "The Concept Creep of 'Emotional Labor'". The Atlantic. Retrieved 9 June 2020.</ref>

This modern use of the term had originally been introduced by non-professionals of the field and has therefore received criticism by medical and psychological professionals.<ref>Palmatier, Tara (17 December 2020). "Narcissism, Professional Martyrs, Emotional Labor and Christmas". Retrieved 19 Dec 2020.</ref>

Determinants

1. Societal, occupational, and organizational norms. For example, empirical evidence indicates that in typically "busy" stores there is more legitimacy to express negative emotions than there is in typically "slow" stores, in which employees are expected to behave in accordance with the display rules.<ref>Rafaeli, A.; Sutton, R. I. (1989). "The expression of emotion in organizational life" (PDF). Research in Organizational Behavior. 11: 1–42.</ref> Hence, the emotional culture to which one belongs influences the employee's commitment to those rules.<ref name="grandey_2005">Grandey, A.A.; Fisk, G.M.; Steiner, D.D. (2005). "Must "service with a smile" be stressful? The moderate role of personal control for American and French employees". Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (5): 893–904. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.893. PMID 16162062. S2CID 41790033. Download. Archived 2015-07-27 at the Wayback Machine</ref>
2. Dispositional traits and inner feeling on the job; such as employees' emotional expressiveness, which refers to the capability to use facial expressions, voice, gestures, and body movements to transmit emotions;<ref>Friedman, H. S.; Prince, L. M.; Riggio, R. E.; DiMatteo, R. (1980). "Understanding and assessing nonverbal expressiveness: The affective communication test". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39 (2): 333–351. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.2.333. S2CID 444767.</ref> or employees' level of career identity (the importance of the career role to self-identity), which allows them to express the organizationally-desired emotions more easily (because there is less discrepancy between expressed behavior and emotional experience when engaged in their work).<ref>Wilk, S.L.; Moynihan, L.M. (2005). "Display rule "regulators": The relationship between supervisors and workers emotional exhaustion". Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (5): 917–927. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.917. PMID 16162064.</ref>
3. Supervisory regulation of display rules; Supervisors are likely to be important definers of display rules at the job level, given their direct influence on workers' beliefs about high-performance expectations. Moreover, supervisors' impressions of the need to suppress negative emotions on the job influence the employees' impressions of that display rule.<ref name="Diefendorff"/>

Surface and deep acting

Arlie Hochschild's foundational text divided emotional labor into two components: surface acting and deep acting.<ref name="Hochschild Book" /> Surface acting occurs when employees display the emotions required for a job without changing how they actually feel.<ref name="Hochschild Book" /> Deep acting is an effortful process through which employees change their internal feelings to align with organizational expectations, producing more natural and genuine emotional displays.<ref name=":0">Grandy, A.; Diefendorff, J.M.; Rupp, D. (2013). Emotional labor in the 21st century: Diverse Perspectives on Emotion Regulation at Work. Routledge. pp. 3–17.</ref> Although the underlying processes differ, the objective of both is typically to show positive emotions, which are presumed to impact the feelings of customers and bottom-line outcomes (e.g. sales, positive recommendations, and repeat business).<ref name=":0" /><ref>Pugh, S. D..Emotional labor: Organization-level influences, strategies, and outcomes. New York. N.Y: Routledge</ref><ref>Tsai, W.C. (2001). "Determinants and consequences of employee displayed positive emotions". Journal of Management. 27 (4): 497–512. doi:10.1177/014920630102700406. S2CID 144321700.</ref> However, research generally has shown surface acting is more harmful to employee health.<ref>Grandey, A.A. (2003). "When "the show must go on": Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery". Academy of Management Journal. 46 (1): 86–96. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.551.854. JSTOR 30040678.</ref><ref>Hülsheger, U.R.; Schewe, A.F. (2011). "On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 16 (3): 361–389. doi:10.1037/a0022876. PMID 21728441. S2CID 42017277.</ref><ref>Qi, Xingliang; Ji, Shuang; Zhang, Jing; Lu, Wanyong; Sluiter, Judith K.; Deng, Huihua (2016-11-01). "Correlation of emotional labor and cortisol concentration in hair among female kindergarten teachers". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 90 (1): 117–122. doi:10.1007/s00420-016-1179-6. ISSN 0340-0131. PMID 27804039. S2CID 6128638.</ref> Without a consideration of ethical values, the consequences of emotional work on employees can easily become negative. Business ethics can be used as a guide for employees on how to present feelings that are consistent with ethical values, and can show them how to regulate their feelings more easily and comfortably while working.<ref name="Öngöre (2020)"></ref>

Careers

A nurse working in a hospital is expected to express positive emotions towards patients, such as warmth and compassion.

In the past, emotional labor demands and display rules were viewed as a characteristic of particular occupations, such as restaurant workers, cashiers, hospital workers, bill collectors, counselors, secretaries, and nurses. However, display rules have been conceptualized not only as role requirements of particular occupational groups, but also as interpersonal job demands, which are shared by many kinds of occupations.<ref name="Diefendorff">Diefendorff, J. M.; Richard, E. M. (2003). "Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions". Journal of Applied Psychology. 88 (2): 284–294. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.284. PMID 12731712.</ref>

Teachers

Zang et al. (2019) looked at teachers in China, using questionnaires the researchers asked about their teaching experience and their interaction with the children and their families.<ref>Zhang, Qilong; Yin, Jianqin; Chen, Hua; Zhang, Quan; Wu, Weiying (2020-04-02). "Emotional Labor Among Early Childhood Teachers: Frequency, Antecedents, and Consequences". Journal of Research in Childhood Education. 34 (2): 288–305. doi:10.1080/02568543.2019.1675824. ISSN 0256-8543. S2CID 213862626.</ref> According to numerous studies, early childhood education is important to a child's development, which can have an effect on the teachers emotional labor, along with their emotional labor having an effect on the children. A big focus in this study was the use of surface acting in early childhood teacher. Zang et al. (2019) found that surface acting was used significantly less than deep and natural acting in kindergarten teachers, along with early childhood teacher are less likely to fake or suppress their feelings. They also found that more experienced teachers had higher levels of emotional labor, because they either have more skills to suppress their emotions, or they are less driven to use surface acting.

Bill collectors

In 1991, Sutton did an in-depth qualitative study into bill collectors at a collection agency.<ref name="sutton">Sutton, Robert I. (1991). "Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors". Administrative Science Quarterly. 36 (2): 245–268. doi:10.2307/2393355. JSTOR 2393355.</ref> He found that unlike the other jobs described here where employees need to act cheerful and concerned, bill collectors are selected and socialized to show irritation to most debtors. Specifically, the collection agency hired agents who seemed to be easily aroused. The newly hired agents were then trained on when and how to show varying emotions to different types of debtors. As they worked at the collection agency, they were closely monitored by their supervisors to make sure that they frequently conveyed urgency to debtors.

Bill collectors' emotional labor consists of not letting angry and hostile debtors make them angry and to not feel guilty about pressuring friendly debtors for money.<ref name="sutton" /> They coped with angry debtors by publicly showing their anger or making jokes when they got off the phone.<ref name="sutton" /> They minimized the guilt they felt by staying emotionally detached from the debtors.<ref name="sutton" />

Childcare workers

Childcare worker at a daycare in Nigeria

The skills involved in childcare are often viewed as innate to women, making the components of childcare invisible.<ref name=":6">Uttal, Lynet; Tuominen, Mary (1999). "Tenuous Relationships". Gender & Society. 13 (6): 758–780. doi:10.1177/089124399013006005. ISSN 0891-2432. S2CID 143196989.</ref><ref name=":2">Vincent, Carol; Braun, Annette (2012-06-21). "Being 'fun' at work: emotional labour, class, gender and childcare". British Educational Research Journal. 39 (4): 751–768. doi:10.1080/01411926.2012.680433. ISSN 0141-1926.</ref> However, a number of scholars have not only studied the difficulty and skill required for childcare, but also suggested that the emotional labor of childcare is unique and needs to be studied differently.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">Andrew, Yarrow (2015-07-04). "'I'm strong within myself': gender, class and emotional capital in childcare". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 36 (5): 651–668. doi:10.1080/01425692.2013.835711. ISSN 0142-5692. S2CID 144787371.</ref><ref name=":4">Lee, Raymond T.; Brotheridge, Céleste M. (2011-08-16). "Words from the heart speak to the heart". Career Development International. 16 (4): 401–420. doi:10.1108/13620431111158805. ISSN 1362-0436.</ref><ref name=":5">Edwards, Lisa Nyree (2015-11-26). "Looking after the teachers: exploring the emotional labour experienced by teachers of looked after children". Educational Psychology in Practice. 32 (1): 54–72. doi:10.1080/02667363.2015.1112256. ISSN 0266-7363. S2CID 146163454.</ref> Performing emotional labor requires the development of emotional capital, and that can only be developed through experience and reflection.<ref name=":3" /> Through semi-structured interviews, Edwards (2016) found that there were two components of emotional labor in childcare in addition to Hochschild's original two: emotional consonance and suppression.<ref name="Hochschild Book" /><ref name=":5" /> Edwards (2016) defined suppression as hiding emotion and emotional consonance as naturally experiencing the same emotion that one is expected to feel for the job.<ref name=":5" />

Food-industry workers

Wait staff

A waitress taking an order in an American restaurant

In her 1991 study of waitresses in Philadelphia, Paules examines how these workers assert control and protect their self identity during interactions with customers. In restaurant work, Paules argues, workers' subordination to customers is reinforced through "cultural symbols that originate from deeply rooted assumptions about service work." Because the waitresses were not strictly regulated by their employers, waitresses' interactions with customers were controlled by the waitresses themselves. Although they are stigmatized by the stereotypes and assumptions of servitude surrounding restaurant work, the waitresses studied were not negatively affected by their interactions with customers. To the contrary, they viewed their ability to manage their emotions as a valuable skill that could be used to gain control over customers. Thus, the Philadelphia waitresses took advantage of the lack of employer-regulated emotional labor in order to avoid the potentially negative consequences of emotional labor.<ref>Paules, G.F. (1991). Dishing it out: power and resistance among waitresses in a New Jersey restaurant. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University. ISBN 9780877228875.</ref>

Though Paules highlights the positive consequences of emotional labor for a specific population of waitresses, other scholars have also found negative consequences of emotional labor within the waitressing industry. Through eighteen months of participant observation research, Bayard De Volo (2003) found that casino waitresses are highly monitored and monetarily bribed to perform emotional labor in the workplace.<ref name="Casino Waitress">Bayard De Volo, L (2003). "Service and surveillance: infrapolitics at work among casino cocktail waitresses". Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society. 10 (3): 346–376. doi:10.1093/sp/jxg019.</ref> Specifically, Bayard De Volo (2003) argues that through a sexualized environment and a generous tipping system, both casino owners and customers control waitresses' behavior and appearance for their own benefit and pleasure. Even though the waitresses have their own forms of individual and collective resistance mechanisms, intense and consistent monitoring of their actions by casino management makes it difficult to change the power dynamics of the casino workplace.<ref name="Casino Waitress" />

Fast-food employees

By using participant observation and interviews, Leidner (1993) examines how employers in fast food restaurants regulate workers' interactions with customers.<ref name="Fast Food Book">Leidner, Robin (1993-08-04). Fast food, fast talk: service work and the routinization of everyday life. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520085008.</ref> According to Leidner (1993), employers attempt to regulate workers' interactions with customers only under certain conditions. Specifically, when employers attempt to regulate worker–customer interactions, employers believe that "the quality of the interaction is important to the success of the enterprise", that workers are "unable or unwilling to conduct the interactions appropriately on their own", and that the "tasks themselves are not too complex or context-dependent."<ref name="Fast Food Book" /> According to Leidner (1993), regulating employee interactions with customers involves standardizing workers' personal interactions with customers. At the McDonald's fast food restaurants in Leidner's (1993) study, these interactions are strictly scripted, and workers' compliance with the scripts and regulations are closely monitored.<ref name="Fast Food Book" />

Along with examining employers' attempts to regulate employee–customer interactions, Leidner (1993) examines how fast-food workers' respond to these regulations.<ref name="Fast Food Book" /> According to Leidner (1993), meeting employers' expectations requires workers to engage in some form of emotional labor. For example, McDonald's workers are expected to greet customers with a smile and friendly attitude independent of their own mood or temperament at the time. Leidner (1993) suggests that rigid compliance with these expectations is at least potentially damaging to workers' sense of self and identity. However, Leidner (1993) did not see the negative consequences of emotional labor in the workers she studied. Instead, McDonald's workers attempted to individualize their responses to customers in small ways. Specifically, they used humor or exaggeration to demonstrate their rebellion against the strict regulation of their employee–customer interactions.<ref name="Fast Food Book" />

Physicians

According to Larson and Yao (2005), empathy should characterize physicians' interactions with their patients because, despite advancement in medical technology, the interpersonal relationship between physicians and patients remains essential to quality healthcare.<ref name=Physicians>Larson, E.B.; Yao, X. (2005). "Clinical empathy as emotional labor in the patient-physician relationship". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 293 (9): 1100–1106. doi:10.1001/jama.293.9.1100. PMID 15741532.</ref> Larson and Yao (2005) argue that physicians consider empathy a form of emotional labor. Specifically, according to Larson and Yao (2005), physicians engage in emotional labor through deep acting by feeling sincere empathy before, during, and after interactions with patients. On the other hand, Larson and Yao (2005) argue that physicians engage in surface acting when they fake empathic behaviors toward the patient. Although Larson and Yao (2005) argue that deep acting is preferred, physicians may rely on surface acting when sincere empathy for patients is impossible. Overall, Larson and Yao (2005) argue that physicians are more effective and enjoy more professional satisfaction when they engage in empathy through deep acting due to emotional labor.<ref name=Physicians />

Police work

According to Martin (1999), police work involves substantial amounts of emotional labor by officers, who must control their own facial and bodily displays of emotion in the presence of other officers and citizens.<ref name="Police Officers">Martin, S.E. (1999). "Police force or police service? Gender and emotional labor". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 561 (1): 111–126. doi:10.1177/000271629956100108. JSTOR 1049285. S2CID 145400449.</ref> Although policing is often viewed as stereotypically masculine work that focuses on fighting crime, policing also requires officers to maintain order and provide a variety of interpersonal services. For example, police must have a commanding presence that allows them to act decisively and maintain control in unpredictable situations while having the ability to actively listen and talk to citizens. According to Martin (1999), a police officer who displays too much anger, sympathy, or other emotion while dealing with danger on the job will be viewed by other officers as someone unable to withstand the pressures of police work, due to the sexist views of many police officers.<ref name="Police Officers" /> While being able to balance this self-management of emotions in front of other officers, police must also assertively restore order and use effective interpersonal skills to gain citizen trust and compliance. Ultimately, the ability of police officers to effectively engage in emotional labor affects how other officers and citizens view them.<ref name="Police Officers" />

Public administration

Many scholars argue that the amount of emotional work required between all levels of government is greatest on the local level. It is at the level of cities and counties that the responsibility lies for day to day emergency preparedness, firefighters, law enforcement, public education, public health, and family and children's services. Citizens in a community expect the same level of satisfaction from their government, as they receive in a customer service-oriented job. This takes a considerate amount of work for both employees and employers in the field of public administration. Mastracci and Adams (2017) looks at public servants and how they may be at risk of being alienated because of their unsupported emotional labor demands from their jobs. This can cause surface acting and distrust in management.<ref>Mastracci, Sharon; Adams, Ian (2018-10-02). ""That's What the Money's for": Alienation and Emotional Labor in Public Service". Administrative Theory & Praxis. 40 (4): 304–319. doi:10.1080/10841806.2018.1485449. ISSN 1084-1806. S2CID 159032329.</ref> There are two comparisons that represent emotional labor within public administration, "Rational Work versus Emotion Work", and "Emotional Labor versus Emotional Intelligence."<ref>Guy, Mary; Newman, Meredith; Mastracci, Sharon (2008). Emotional Labor- Putting the Service in Public Service. New York: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-7656-2117-7.</ref>

Performance

Many scholars argue that when public administrators perform emotional labor, they are dealing with significantly more sensitive situations than employees in the service industry. The reason for this is because they are on the front lines of the government, and are expected by citizens to serve them quickly and efficiently. When confronted by a citizen or a co-worker, public administrators use emotional sensing to size up the emotional state of the citizen in need. Workers then take stock of their own emotional state in order to make sure that the emotion they are expressing is appropriate to their roles. Simultaneously, they have to determine how to act in order to elicit the desired response from the citizen as well as from co-workers. Public Administrators perform emotional labor through five different strategies: Psychological First Aid, Compartments and Closets, Crazy Calm, Humor, and Common Sense.<ref name=":1">Mastracci, Sharron H. (2012). Emotional Labor and Crisis Response, Working on a Razor's Edge. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 20–36.</ref>

Definition: rational work vs. emotion work

According to Mary Guy, Public administration does not only focus on the business side of administration but on the personal side as well. It is not just about collecting the water bill or land ordinances to construct a new property, it is also about the quality of life and sense of community that is allotted to individuals by their city officials. Rational work is the ability to think cognitively and analytically, while emotional work means to think more practically and with more reason.<ref>Guy, Mary; Newman, Meredith; Mastracci, Sharon (2008). Emotional Labor- Putting the Service in Public Service. New York: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 63. ISBN 978-0-7656-2117-7.</ref>

Definition: intelligence vs. emotional intelligence

Knowing how to suppress and manage one's own feelings is known as emotional intelligence. The ability to control one's emotions and to be able to do this at a high level guarantees one's own ability to serve those in need. Emotional intelligence is performed while performing emotional labor, and without one the other can not be there.<ref>Guy, Mary; Newman, Meredith; Mastracci, Sharon (2008). Emotional Labor- Putting the Service in Public Service. New York: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-7656-2117-7.</ref>

Gender

Macdonald and Sirianni (1996) use the term "emotional proletariat" to describe service jobs in which "workers exercise emotional labor wherein they are required to display friendliness and deference to customers."<ref name="Gender Book">Macdonald, Cameron L.; Sirianni, Carmen (1996), "The service society and the changing experience of work", in Macdonald, Cameron L.; Sirianni, Carmen (eds.), In working in the service society, Temple University Press, pp. 1–28, ISBN 978-1-56639-480-2.</ref> Because of deference, these occupations tend to be stereotyped as female jobs, independent of the actual number of women working the job. According to Macdonald and Sirianni (1996), because deference is a characteristic demanded of all those in disadvantaged structural positions, especially women, when deference is made a job requirement, women are likely to be overrepresented in these jobs. Macdonald and Sirianni (1996) claim that "[i]n no other area of wage labor are the personal characteristics of the workers so strongly associated with the nature of the work."<ref name="Gender Book" /> Thus, according to Macdonald and Sirianna (1996), although all workers employed within the service economy may have a difficult time maintaining their dignity and self-identity due to the demands of emotional labor, such an issue may be especially problematic for women workers.<ref name="Gender Book" />

Emotional labor also affects women by perpetuating occupational segregation and the gender wage gap.<ref name="Gender Article">Guy, Mary Ellen; Newman, Meredith A. (2004). "Women's jobs, men's jobs: sex segregation and emotional labor". Public Administration Review. 64 (3): 289–298. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2004.00373.x.</ref> Job segregation, which is the systematic tendency for men and women to work in different occupations, is often cited as the reason why women lack equal pay when compared to men. According to Guy and Newman (2004), occupational segregation and ultimately the gender wage gap can at least be partially attributed to emotional labor. Specifically, work-related tasks that require emotional work thought to be natural for women, such as caring and empathizing are requirements of many female-dominated occupations. However, according to Guy and Newman (2004), these feminized work tasks are not a part of formal job descriptions and performance evaluations: "Excluded from job descriptions and performance evaluations, the work is invisible and uncompensated. Public service relies heavily on such skills, yet civil service systems, which are designed on the assumptions of a bygone era, fail to acknowledge and compensate emotional labor." According to Guy and Newman (2004), women working in positions that require emotional labour in addition to regular work are not compensated for this additional labour because of the sexist notion that the additional labour is to be expected of them by the fact of being a woman. Guy and Azhar (2018) found that emotive expressions between sexes is affected by culture. This study found that there is variability to how women and men interpret emotive words, and specifically results showed that culture played a huge role in these gender differences.<ref>Guy, Mary E.; Azhar, Aisha (2018-10-02). "Emotional Labor Meanings, Gender, and Culture: A Comparative Assessment". Administrative Theory & Praxis. 40 (4): 289–303. doi:10.1080/10841806.2018.1485452. ISSN 1084-1806. S2CID 150118114.</ref>

Disability

People with disability are increasingly part of the labor force, due to societal attitudes about inclusion and neoliberal pressures around reducing welfare. Roles that require emotional labor may be more difficult for people with certain kinds of disabilities to perform. Additionally, workplaces may require workers with disability to downplay their impairments in order to 'fit in', an extra burden of emotional labor.<ref>Wilton, Robert D. (June 2008). "Workers with disabilities and the challenges of emotional labour". Disability & Society. 23 (4): 361–373. doi:10.1080/09687590802038878. S2CID 145138769.</ref>

Implications

Positive affective display in service interactions, such as smiling and conveying friendliness, are positively associated with customer positive feelings,<ref>Pugh, S.D. (2001). "Service with a smile: emotional contagion in the service encounter". Academy of Management Journal. 44 (5): 1018–1027. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.1825. JSTOR 3069445.</ref> and important outcomes, such as intention to return, intention to recommend a store to others, and perception of overall service quality.<ref>Parasuraman, A.; Zeithaml, V.A.; Berry, L.L. (Spring 1988). "SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale for measuring customer perceptions of service quality" (PDF). Journal of Retailing. 64 (1): 12–40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04.</ref> There is evidence that emotional labor may lead to employees' emotional exhaustion and burnout over time, and may also reduce employees' job satisfaction. That is, higher degree of using emotion regulation on the job is related to higher levels of employees' emotional exhaustion,<ref name="grandey_2005"/> and lower levels of employees' job satisfaction.<ref>Brotheridge, C. M.; Grandey, A. A. (2002). "Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of people work". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 60: 17–39. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815. S2CID 37027572.</ref>

There is empirical evidence that higher levels of emotional labor demands are not uniformly rewarded with higher wages. Rather, the reward is dependent on the level of general cognitive demands required by the job. That is, occupations with high cognitive demands evidence wage returns with increasing emotional labor demands; whereas occupations low in cognitive demands evidence a wage "penalty" with increasing emotional labor demands.<ref>Glomb, T.M.; Kammeyer-Mueller, J.; Rotundo, M. (2004). "Emotional labor demands and compensating wage differentials" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 89 (4): 700–714. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.700. PMID 15327355. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-20.</ref> Additionally, innovations that increase employee empowerment — such as conversion into worker cooperatives, co-managing schemes, or flattened workplace structures — have been found to increase workers’ levels of emotional labor as they take on more workplace responsibilities.<ref>Hoffmann, Elizabeth A. (2016). "Emotions and Emotional Labor at Worker-Owned Businesses: Deep Acting, Surface Acting, and Genuine Emotions". The Sociological Quarterly. 57: 152–173. doi:10.1111/tsq.12113. S2CID 145338476.</ref>

Coping skills

Coping occurs in response to psychological stress—usually triggered by changes—in an effort to maintain mental health and emotional well-being. Life stressors are often described as negative events (loss of a job). However, positive changes in life (a new job) can also constitute life stressors, thus requiring the use of coping skills to adapt. Coping strategies are the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that you use to adjust to the changes that occur in your life.<ref>"How Do You Cope". ucla.edu. UCLA. Archived from the original on August 28, 2018. Retrieved November 20, 2015.</ref> The use of coping skills will help a person better themselves in the work place and perform to the best of their ability to achieve success. There are many ways to cope and adapt to changes. Some ways include: sharing emotions with peers, having a healthy social life outside of work, being humorous, and adjusting expectations of self and work. These coping skills will help turn negative emotion to positive and allow for more focus on the public in contrast to oneself.<ref>Diefendorff, J; Gosserand, R (2003). "Understanding the emotional labor process: A control theory perspective". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 24 (8): 945–959. doi:10.1002/job.230.</ref>

See also

• Hazing
• Anxiety
• Bullying
• Harassment
• Social stress
• Affect display
• Emotion work
• Affective labor
• Compassion fatigue
• Emotional detachment
• Emotional self-regulation
• Kinkeeping
• Mental health
• Display rules
• Peer pressure
• Toxic positivity
• Group emotion
• Dispositional affect
• Emotions and culture
• Thought suppression
• Postponement of affect
• Afterburn (psychotherapy)
• Sexism
• Social influence
• Superficial charm
• Verbal self defense
• Smile mask syndrome
• Vicarious traumatization
• Marx's theory of alienation
• Organizational psychology
• Weaponized incompetence
• Keeping up with the joneses
• Customer relationship management

Further reading

• Abraham, R (May 1998). "Emotional dissonance in organizations: Antecedents, consequences, and moderators". Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs. 124 (2): 229–246. PMID 9597747.
• Adelman, P.K. (1995), "Emotional labor as a potential source of job stress", in Sauter, S.L.; Murphy, L.R. (eds.), Organizational risk factors for job stress, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 371–381, ISBN 978-1-55798-297-1
• Ashforth, B. E.; Humphrey, R. H. (1993). "Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity". Academy of Management Review. 18 (1): 88–115. doi:10.5465/amr.1993.3997508. JSTOR 258824.
• Brotheridge, C. M.; Grandey, A. A. (2002). "Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of 'people work'". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 60: 17–39. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815. S2CID 37027572.
• Brotheridge, C. M.; Lee, R. T. (2002). "Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 7 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.57. PMID 11827234.
• Cropanzano, R.; Rupp, D.E.; Byrne, Z.S. (2003). "The relationship of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 88 (1): 160–169. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.160. PMID 12675403. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-15.
• Diefendorff, J. M.; Richard, E. M. (2003). "Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions". Journal of Applied Psychology. 88 (2): 284–294. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.284. PMID 12731712.
• Erickson, R. J.; Wharton, A. S. (1997). "Inauthenticity and depression: Assessing the consequences of interactive service work". Work and Occupations. 24 (2): 188–213. doi:10.1177/0730888497024002004. S2CID 145001059.
• Friedman, H. S.; Prince, L. M.; Riggio, R. E.; DiMatteo, R. (1980). "Understanding and assessing nonverbal expressiveness: The affective communication test". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39 (2): 333–351. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.2.333. S2CID 444767.
• Glomb, T.M.; Kammeyer-Mueller, J.; Rotundo, M. (2004). "Emotional Labor Demands and Compensating Wage Differentials" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 89 (4): 700–714. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.4.700. PMID 15327355. Pdf.
• Grandey, A.A. (2000). "Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 5 (1): 59–100. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.95. PMID 10658889. S2CID 18404826. Pdf.
• Grandey, A.; Dickter, D.; Sin, H.P. (2004). "The customer is not always right: Customer verbal aggression toward service employees". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 25 (3): 397–418. doi:10.1002/job.252. S2CID 144661055. Pdf. Archived 2023-04-15 at the Wayback Machine
• Grandey, A.A.; Fisk, G.M.; Steiner, D.D. (2005). "Must "service with a smile" be stressful? The moderate role of personal control for American and French employees". Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (5): 893–904. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.893. PMID 16162062. S2CID 41790033. Download. Archived 2015-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
• Grove, S.J.; Fisk, R.P. (1989), "Impression management in services marketing: a dramaturgical perspective", in Giacalone, R.A.; Rosenfeld, P. (eds.), Impression Management in the Organization, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 427–438, ISBN 978-0-8058-0696-0
• Gross, J (1998a). "Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (1): 224–237. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.688.783. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224. PMID 9457784. S2CID 3031566.
• Gross, J (1998b). "The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 2 (3): 271–299. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.7042. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271. S2CID 6236938. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 22, 2005.
• Hochschild, A.R. (1983). The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05454-7.
• Ito, J.; Brotheridge, C. (2003). "Resources, coping strategies, and emotional exhaustion: A conservation of resources perspective". Journal of Vocational Behavior. 63 (3): 490–509. doi:10.1016/s0001-8791(02)00033-7.
• Parasuraman, A.; Zeithaml, V.A.; Berry, L.L. (Spring 1988). "SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale for measuring customer perceptions of service quality". Journal of Retailing. 64 (1): 12–40. Pdf.
• Pugliesi, K (1999). "The consequences of emotional labor in a complex organization". Motivation and Emotion. 23 (2): 125–154. doi:10.1023/A:1021329112679. S2CID 141064709.
• Rafaeli, A.; Sutton, R. I. (1989). "The expression of emotion in organizational life". Research in Organizational Behavior. 11: 1–42. Pdf.
• Ragin, Charles C. (1994). Constructing social research: the unity and diversity of method. Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-0-8039-9021-0.
• Sutton, R. I.; Rafaeli, I. (1988). "Untangling the relationship between displayed emotions and organizational sales: The case of convenience stores". Academy of Management Journal. 31 (3): 461–487. JSTOR 256456.
• Tracy, S (2000). "Becoming a character for commerce emotion". Management Communication Quarterly. 14 (1): 90–128. doi:10.1177/0893318900141004. S2CID 144163747.
• Wichroski, M.R. (1994). "The secretary: invisible labor in the workworld of women". Human Organization. 53 (1): 33–41. doi:10.17730/humo.53.1.a1205g53j7334631.
• Wilding, M.; Chae, K.; Jang, J. (2014). "Emotional labor in Korean local government: testing the consequences of situational factors and emotional dissonance" (PDF). Public Performance & Management Review. 38 (2): 316–336. doi:10.1080/15309576.2015.983838. S2CID 144172415.
• Wright, T.A.; Cropanzano, R. (1998). "Emotional exhaustion as a predictor of job performance and voluntary turnover". Journal of Applied Psychology. 83 (3): 486–493. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.486. PMID 9648526.
• Zapf, D (2002). "Emotion work and psychological well-being. A review of the literature and some conceptual considerations". Human Resource Management Review. 12 (2): 237–268. doi:10.1016/s1053-4822(02)00048-7.