Second-wave positive psychology

Second wave positive psychology (PP 2.0) is a therapeutic approach in psychology that attempts to bring out the best in individuals and society by incorporating the dark side of human existence through the dialectical principles of yin and yang.<ref name=":0">Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Worth, P. (2015). Second wave positive psychology: Embracing the dark side of life. London, UK: Routledge.</ref><ref name=":1">Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69-81.</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2015). What is second wave positive psychology and why is it necessary? Dr. Paul T. P. Wong. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/what-is-second-wave-positive-psychology-and-why-is-it-necessary/</ref><ref name=":2">Wong, P. T. P. (2016, July). PP2.0 Summit explores the new vistas of second wave positive psychology: How to embrace the dark side to make life better. Positive Living Newsletter. Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/inpm-presidents-report-july-2016/Z</ref><ref name=":3">Wong, P. T. P., & Roy, S. (in press). Critique of positive psychology and positive psychology interventions. In N. J. L. Brown, T. Lomas, & F. J. Eiroá-Orosa (Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of critical positive psychology. London, UK: Routledge.</ref> This represents a distinct shift from focusing on individual happiness and success to the dual vision<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2012). From logotherapy to meaning-centered counseling and therapy. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 619-647). New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> of individual well-being and collective humanity.<ref name=":4">Wong, P. T. P. (2007). Introduction: A quiet positive revolution. In P. T. P. Wong, L. C. J. Wong, M. J. McDonald, & D. W. Klaassen (Eds.), The positive psychology of meaning and spirituality: Selected papers from meaning conferences (pp. 1-8). Abbotsford, BC: INPM Press.</ref><ref name=":5">Wong, P. T. P. (in press). Meaning-centered approach to research and therapy, second wave positive psychology, and the future of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist.</ref> PP 2.0 is more about bringing out the "better angels of our nature"<ref>Pinker, S. (2011). The better angels of our nature: Why violence has declined. New York, NY: Penguin Books.</ref> than achieving optimal happiness or personal success. The approach posits that empathy, compassion, reason, justice, and self-transcendence will improve humans, both individually and collectively. PP 2.0 centers around the universal human capacity for meaning-seeking and meaning-making<ref name=":6">Wong, P. T. P. (2015, December). The meaning hypothesis of living a good life: Virtue, happiness, and meaning. Paper presented at the research working group meeting for Virtue, Happiness, and the Meaning of Life Project, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation)</ref> in achieving optimal human functioning under both desirable and undesirable conditions.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":15">Wong, P. T. P., Ivtzan, I., & Lomas, T. (2016). Good work: A meaning-centred approach. In L. G. Oades, M. F. Steger, A. Delle Fave, & J. Passmore (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work (pp. 0-0). West Sussex, UK: Wiley Blackwell.</ref> This emerging movement is a response to perceived problems of what some have called "positive psychology as usual."<ref name=":3" />

Limitations of positive psychology

Positive psychology "as usual" has been presented as

the branch of psychology that uses scientific understanding and effective intervention to aid in the achievement of a satisfactory life, rather than treating mental illness. The focus of positive psychology is on personal growth rather than on pathology.

It has been argued that this binary, dichotomous view has fueled positive psychology's success and decline.<ref name=":3" /> The single-minded focus on positivity has resulted in persistent backlash (e.g., Frawley, 2015 for a recent review).<ref>Frawley, A. (2015). Happiness research: A review of critiques. Sociology Compass 9(1), 62-77.</ref> The following criticisms have been leveled against positive psychology by researchers both outside of and within the positive psychology community. These include the "tyranny" of positivity and the lack of balance between positives and negatives;<ref>Held, B. S. (2004). The negative side of positive psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 44(1), 9-46. doi:10.1177/0022167803259645</ref><ref>Kashdan, T., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2014). The upside of your dark side: Why being your whole self—not just your "good" self—drives success and fulfillment. New York, NY: Plume. </ref> failing to cover the entire spectrum of human experiences;<ref>Linley, P. A., Joseph, S., Harrington, S. & Wood, A. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 3-16.</ref> failing to recognize the importance of contextual variables;<ref>McNulty, J. K., & Fincham, F. D. (2012). Beyond positive psychology? Toward a contextual view of psychological processes and well-being. American Psychologist, 67(2), 101.</ref> and assuming that the Western individualistic culture represents the universal human experience.<ref name=":8">Chang, E. C., Downey, C. A., Hirsch, J. K., & Lin, N. J. (2016). Positive psychology in racial and ethnic groups: Theory, research, and practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref><ref name=":9">Wong, P. T. P. (2013). Positive psychology. In K. Keith (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 1021-1026). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.</ref> As a result, various positive psychologists have proposed the need for a broader perspective.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":10">Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2015). Second wave positive psychology: Exploring the positive–negative dialectics of wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(4), 1753–1768. doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y</ref><ref>Wood, A. M., & Joseph, S. (2010). The absence of positive psychological (eudemonic) well-being as a risk factor for depression: A ten year cohort study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 122(3), 213-217.</ref>

Existential positive psychology

Paul Wong has argued for integrating positive psychology with existential psychology, resulting in "existential positive psychology" (EPP).<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2009). Existential positive psychology. In S. Lopez (Ed.), Encyclopedia of positive psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 361-368). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2010). What is existential positive psychology? International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, 3(1), 1-10.</ref> This approach differs significantly from positive psychology "as usual" regarding epistemology and content.

EPP takes a pluralistic and holistic approach to research. It is open to insights and wisdom from both the East and the West and research findings from all sources regardless of the paradigm of truth claims. In terms of content, it explores both people's existential anxieties<ref name=":11">Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.</ref> and their ultimate concerns.<ref>Emmons, R. A. (1999). The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. New York, NY: Guilford Press.</ref> Thus, EPP contributes to a broader understanding of human experiences.

Both existential philosophers and psychologists see life as a series of paradoxes, predicaments, and problems. From this existential perspective,<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (in press). Existential theoretical framework. In A. Wenzel (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of abnormal and clinical psychology. New York, NY: Sage.</ref> life is also full of striving and sense-making, tragedies, and triumphs. The dynamic interplay between good and evil, negatives and positives, is one of the hallmarks of EPP. Positives cannot exist apart from negatives, and authentic happiness grows from pain and suffering. This paradoxical view reflects Albert Camus' insight that "there is no joy of life without despair" (p. 56)<ref>Camus, A. (1968). Lyrical and critical essays (E. C. Kennedy, Trans.). New York: Knopf. </ref> and Rollo May's observation that "the ultimate paradox is that negation becomes affirmation" (p. 164).<ref>May, R. (1981). Freedom and destiny. New York, NY: Norton.</ref>

It may be argued that positive psychology is intrinsically existential because it is concerned with such fundamental questions about human existence as: What is the good life? What makes life worth living? How can one find happiness? Positive psychology research on these existential issues without taking into account the existential literature inevitably leads to superficiality or mischaracterization.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Brown, N. J. L., & Wong, P. T. P. (2015). Questionable measures are pretty meaningless: Comment on Heintzelman and King (2014). American Psychologist, 70(6), 571-573. doi:10.1037/a0039308</ref>

A comprehensive positive psychology cannot be developed without taking into account the reality of death, the only certainty for all living organisms. However, human beings alone are burdened with the cognitive capacity to be aware of their own mortality and to fear what may follow after one's own demise.<ref>Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential therapy. New York, NY: Basic Books.</ref> However, death awareness may be essential to meaningful living; "though the physicality of death destroys us, the idea of death saves us" (p. 7).<ref name=":11" /> Thus, awareness of our finality is indeed an important motivational factor for us to do something meaningful and significant in our lives.

Therefore, EPP advocates that the proper context of studying well-being and the meaningful life is the reality of suffering and death. Researchers who share this view include Bretherton and Ørner,<ref>Bretherton, R. and Ørner, R. J. (2004) Positive psychology and psychotherapy: An existential approach. P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 420-430). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.</ref> Schneider,<ref>Schneider, K. J. (2010, November 29). Toward a humanistic positive psychology: Why can't we just get along? Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/awakening-awe/201011/toward-humanistic-positive-psychology-why-cant-we-just-get-along</ref> and Taheny.<ref>Taheny, M. (2015, May 4). Living existential positive psychology. New Existentialists: Saybrook University. Retrieved from http://www.saybrook.edu/newexistentialists/posts/05-04-15/</ref>

Recently, positive psychologists have recognized that positive psychology is rooted in Humanistic psychology, but in practice, it continues to distance itself from its heritage because of the alleged lack of scientific research in humanistic psychology.<ref>Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5</ref><ref name=":16">Waterman, A. S. (2013). The humanistic-positive psychology divide: Contrasts in philosophical foundations. American Psychologist, 68, 124-133.</ref> A mature positive psychology needs to return to its existential-humanistic roots because it can both broaden and deepen positive psychology.

Second wave positive psychology

Paul Wong extends EPP to second-wave positive psychology (PP 2.0) by formally incorporating the dialectical principles of Chinese psychology,<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2009). Chinese positive psychology. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Encyclopedia of positive psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 148-156). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell.</ref> the bio-behavioral dual-system model of adaptation,<ref name=":12">Wong, P. T. P. (2012). Toward a dual-systems model of what makes life worth living. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 3-22). New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> and cross-cultural positive psychology.<ref name=":9" /> Thus, PP 2.0 provides a big tent that allows for multiple indigenous positive psychologies<ref name=":8" /> and a much broader list of variables that contribute to well-being and flourishing.

PP 2.0 is necessary because neither positive psychology nor humanistic-existential psychology can adequately understand such complex human phenomena as meaning, virtue, and happiness. Such deep knowledge can only be achieved by an integrative and collaborative endeavor.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> This calls for a humble science.<ref>Templeton, J. (1998). The humble approach: Scientists discover God. Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.</ref> In other words, PP 2.0 denies that the positivist paradigm is the only way to examine truth claims, especially when we research the profound questions of what makes life worth living.

Assumptions

1. Human nature has the potential for both good and evil; thus, self-control of selfish and destructive instincts is necessary to cultivate the "better angels of our nature."
2. Dialectical principles can best integrate positive and negative factors in different contexts.
3. Meaning offers the best protection against adversities and existential concerns and the best pathway to achieve the good life of virtue, happiness, and significance.
4. Just as physical health can only be maintained in recognition of the fact that we live in an environment infected with bacteria and viruses, promoting positive mental health and optimal human functioning must recognize the inevitable dark side of human existence.
5. Individual well-being is connected with the common good of humanity.<ref name=":13">Wong, P. T. P. (2016, September). Mapping the contours of positive psychology 2.0. Positive Living Newsletter.</ref>

Mission

1. To improve the lives of all people and nurture their potential, regardless of their circumstances and cultural backgrounds.
2. To repair the worst and bring out the best, with a focus on the human potential for growth.
3. To integrate negatives and positives to optimize well-being.
4. To study how global beliefs and values affect people's eudaimonic well-being and human functioning.
5. To minimize or transform the downside of the bright side and optimize or transform the upside of the dark side.
6. To cultivate the capacity for meaning-seeking and meaning-making.
7. To study how death awareness can contribute to personal transformation.
8. To develop objective measures of both short-term and long-term well-being for individuals and society.
9. To enhance well-being throughout the lifespan including, the end-of-life stage.
10. To identify and research a host of variables related to both yin and yang.
11. To contain and transform evil to serve the common good.
12. To cultivate inner goodness and develop valid measures of goodness as an outcome.<ref name=":13" />

Importance of dialectical thinking

Taoist dialectical thinking permeates every aspect of Chinese psychology. Peng and Nisbett showed that Chinese thinking is dialectical rather than binary.<ref>Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), 741-754.</ref> Similarly, Sundararajan documents the dialectical co-existence of positive and negative emotions in Chinese people.<ref>Sundararajan, L. (2014). The function of negative emotions in the Confucian tradition. In W. G. Parrott (Ed.), The positive side of negative emotions (pp.179-197). New York, NY: Guilford.</ref>

Paul Wong's research has also demonstrated that the wisdom of yin and yang operates in many situations. He has argued that Chinese people can hold external and internal loci of control simultaneously.<ref>Wong, P. T. P., & Sproule, C. F. (1984). Attributional analysis of locus of control and the Trent Attribution Profile (TAP). In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct, Vol. 3: Limitations and extensions (pp. 309-360). New York, NY: Academic Press.</ref> Therefore, their locus of control beliefs can only be measured by a two-dimensional space with external and internal loci of control as two independent scales. However, dialectic thinking is not unique to Chinese culture. For example, pessimism and optimism can co-exist, resulting in tragic optimism.<ref name=":14">Wong, P. T. P. (2009). Viktor Frankl: Prophet of hope for the 21st century. In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential psychotherapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis. Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Theisen.</ref> Death fear and death acceptance can also co-exist, resulting in the multidimensional Death Attitude Profile.<ref>Wong, P. T. P., Reker, G. T., & Gesser, G. (1994). Death Attitude Profile – Revised: A multidimensional measure of attitudes toward death. In R. A. Neimeyer (Ed.), Death anxiety handbook: Research, instrumentation, and application (pp. 121-148). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.</ref> Resources and deficits co-exist, as conceptualized in the Resource-Congruence Model.<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (1993). Effective management of life stress: The resource-congruence model. Stress Medicine, 9, 51-60.</ref> Thus, family can be a resource for effective coping, but intra-family conflict can also be a deficit or stressor.<ref>Wong, P. T. P., & Ujimoto, K. V. (1998). The elderly Asian Americans: Their stress, coping, and well-being. In L. C. Lee & N. W. S. Zane (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American psychology (pp. 165-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</ref>

Wong's Dual-Systems Model of approach and avoidance spells out the mechanisms whereby the good life can be achieved amid adversities, not by accentuating the positive and avoiding the negative, but by embracing the dynamic and dialectic interaction between positive and negative experiences.<ref name=":12" /> This general bio-behavioral model is also based on the dialectical principle. Dialectical thinking represents a simple but powerful conceptual framework capable of integrating a great deal of the literature relevant to well-being. Yin represents not only the dark side of life but also the conservative and passive modes of adaptation, such as acceptance, letting go, avoidance, withdrawal, disengagement, doing nothing, and self-transcendence. Yang represents not only the bright side of life but also the energetic and active modes of adaptation, such as goal setting and goal striving, problem-solving and controlling, and expanding and maintaining territories.

The dynamic balance between positive and negative forces is mediated through dialectical principles. For instance, Lomas and Ivtzan have identified three ways of restoring and maintaining the balance: (a) the principle of appraisal, (b) the principle of co-valence, and (c) the principle of complementarity.<ref name=":10" />

Similarly, Wong identifies four principles of transforming the dark side: (a) becoming wiser and better through the synthesis of opposites, (b) becoming more balanced and flexible through the co-existence of opposites that complement or moderate each other, (c) becoming more aware and appreciative of the after-effects or contrast effect due to the opponent-process, and (d) becoming more vital and more spiritual through self-transcendence.<ref name=":2" />

Thus, the wisdom of achieving the golden mean or the middle way is through the dialectical interactions between yin and yang. These dialectical principles constitute the foundation of PP 2.0 and ensure that the dark side of life serves the adaptive functions of survival and flourishing.

Incorporating the dark side

The dark side refers to more than just challenging experiences, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that trigger discomfort.<ref name=":0" /> It also encompasses existential anxieties and the inevitable sufferings in life.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":14" /> Apart from existential concerns, the dark side also refers to our Achilles' heel. From Aristotle to William Shakespeare, literature has always recognized the existence of tragic heroes—powerful and successful individuals who are eventually ruined by their character flaws. As Aristotle said, "A man cannot become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall." All one's talents, character strengths, and efforts will eventually come to null, with disastrous consequences to oneself and others, when one pays no attention to one's own Achilles heel.<ref name=":15" />

The meaning hypothesis

Paul Wong proposes that the meaning hypothesis<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2014). From attunement to a meaning-centred good life: Book review of Daniel Haybron's Happiness: A very short introduction. International Journal of Wellbeing, 4(2), 100-105. doi:10.5502/ijw.v4i2.5</ref> is an overarching conceptual framework for PP 2.0 because it is based on the universal human capacity for meaning-making and meaning-seeking and the vital role meaning plays in human experience and well-being.<ref>Batthyany, A., & Russo-Netzer, P. (Eds.). (2014). Meaning in positive and existential psychology. New York, NY: Springer.</ref><ref>Hicks, J. A., & Routledge, C. (Eds.). (2013). The experience of meaning in life: Classical perspectives, emerging themes, and controversies. Dordrecht, NL: Springer.</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (Ed.). (2012). The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> It hypothesizes that meaning is the best possible end value for the good life and offers the best protection against existential anxieties and adversities.

The Meaning Mindset vs. the Success Mindset (Wong, 2012)

Figure 1. This is figure contrasts the meaning mindset with the success mindset, as proposed by psychologist Paul T. P. Wong, PhD in his 2012 paper, "What is the meaning mindset?" in the International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, Volume 4, Issue 1.

The meaning hypothesis places more emphasis on a fundamental change in global beliefs, and values than behavioral change. The "meaning mindset" affirms that life has unconditional meaning and it can be found in any situation.<ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2012c). The meaning mindset: Measurement and implications. International Journal of Existential Psychology & Psychotherapy, 4(1), 1-3.</ref> Figure 1 presents a schematic presentation of the meaning mindset.

If one chooses the meaning mindset, one can still find meaning and fulfillment even when failing to complete one's life mission. Thus, there is no failure when one pursues a virtuous and noble mission as one's life goal. A perspective shift to the meaning mindset helps eliminate one primary source of human misery related to the striving to achieve material success or worldly fame. Cultivating a meaningful mindset may yield a better payoff than positive psychology exercises of enhancing happiness and character strengths because the perspective shift reorients one's focus away from egotistic pursuits to self-transcendence and altruism, which benefit both the individual and society.<ref name=":17">Wong, P. T. P. (2016). Self-transcendence: A paradoxical way to become your best. International Journal of Existential Psychology and Psychotherapy, 6(1). Retrieved from http://www.drpaulwong.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Self-Transcendence_A-Paradoxical-Way-to-Become-Your-Best-2016-Aug-15.pdf</ref><ref>Wong, P. T. P. (2016d, June). Self-transcendence as the path to virtue, happiness and meaning Paper presented at the research working group meeting for Virtue, Happiness, and the Meaning of Life Project, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation) (Abstract retrieved from https://virtue.uchicago.edu/page/paul-t-p-wong-june-2016-working-group-meeting-topic)</ref>

Conclusion

Science is always self-corrective and progressive. PP 2.0 avoids many of the problems inherent in positive psychology "as usual"<ref name=":3" /> and opens up new avenues of research and applications. The future of psychology can benefit from integrating three distinct movements—humanistic-existential psychology, positive psychology, and indigenous psychology.

The 21st century belongs to PP 2.0 because of its ability to integrate various sub-disciplines of mainstream psychology and its humble science approach. PP 2.0 is willing to put aside dogmatic epistemological positions in the service of the greater good, as some have recommended.<ref name=":16" />

Meaning management of the dialectical principles is sensitive to individual and cultural contexts but is, at the same time, also cognizant of the common good of humility and self-transcendence. This big-picture perspective of PP 2.0 avoids many of the excesses associated with the egotistic pursuits of happiness and success in positive psychology, as usual.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":17" />

See also

• Positive psychology