View source for Friction

{{Other uses}}
{{Short description|Force resisting sliding motion}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
[[File:Friction Animation 2 Blocks.gif|thumb|Friction between two objects. The blue one has more friction against the sloped surface than the green one.]]
{{Classical mechanics|cTopic=core}}
[[File:Friction between surfaces.jpg|300x150px|thumb|Figure 1: Simulated blocks with [[fractal]] rough surfaces, exhibiting static frictional interactions<ref name="statfric" />]]

'''Friction''' is the [[force]] resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements [[sliding (motion)|sliding]] against each other.<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|friction}}</ref> 
Types of friction include dry, fluid, lubricated, skin, and internal.

Friction can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by [[Fire making#Friction|rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire]]. [[Kinetic energy]] is converted to [[thermal energy]] whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a [[Viscous flow|viscous]] fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be [[wear]], which may lead to performance degradation or damage to components.

Friction is a [[Conservative force#Nonconservative forces|non-conservative force]] – work done against friction is path dependent. In the presence of friction, some kinetic energy is always transformed to thermal energy, so [[mechanical energy]] is not conserved. Friction is not itself a [[fundamental force]]. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from [[first principle]]s difficult and it is often easier to use [[empirical method]]s for analysis and the development of theory.

==Types==
There are several types of friction:
*'''Dry friction''' is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into ''static friction'' ("[[stiction]]") between non-moving surfaces, and ''kinetic friction'' between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known as [[Asperity (materials science)|asperities]] (see Figure 1). 
*'''Fluid friction''' describes the friction between layers of a [[viscous]] fluid that are moving relative to each other.<ref name="Beer">{{cite book
| last1 = Beer | first1 = Ferdinand P. | author-link1 = Ferdinand Beer
| last2=Johnston |first2=E. Russel Jr.
| year = 1996
| title = Vector Mechanics for Engineers
| edition = Sixth
| publisher = McGraw-Hill
| isbn = 978-0-07-297688-5
| page = 397
}}</ref><ref name="Meriam">{{cite book
| last1 = Meriam
| first1 = J. L.
| last2 = Kraige
| first2 = L. G.
| year = 2002
| title = Engineering Mechanics
| edition = fifth
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons
| isbn = 978-0-471-60293-4
| page = [https://archive.org/details/engineeringmech100meri/page/328 328]
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/engineeringmech100meri
}}</ref>

*'''Lubricated friction''' is a case of fluid friction where a [[lubricant]] fluid separates two solid surfaces.<ref name="Ruina">{{cite book
| last1 = Ruina | first1 = Andy
| last2 = Pratap |first2=Rudra 
| year = 2002
| title = Introduction to Statics and Dynamics
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| page = 713
| url = http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/Book/RuinaPratapNoProblems.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Hibbeler">{{cite book
| last = Hibbeler | first = R. C.
| year = 2007
| title = Engineering Mechanics
| url = https://archive.org/details/studypack00rcsc | url-access = registration | edition = Eleventh
| publisher = Pearson, Prentice Hall
| isbn = 978-0-13-127146-3
| page = 393}}</ref><ref name="Soutas-Little">{{cite book
| last1 = Soutas-Little
| first1 = Robert W.
| last2=Inman |first2=Balint
| year = 2008
| title = Engineering Mechanics
| publisher = Thomson
| isbn = 978-0-495-29610-2
| page = 329}}</ref>

*'''Skin friction''' is a component of [[Drag (physics)|drag]], the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
*'''Internal friction''' is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes [[Deformation (mechanics)|deformation]].<ref name="Meriam"/>

==History==
Many ancient authors including [[Aristotle]], [[Vitruvius]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], were interested in the cause and mitigation of friction.<ref name=Chatterjee2008>{{cite thesis |last=Chatterjee |first=Sudipta |year=2008 |title=Tribological Properties of Pseudo-elastic Nickel-titanium |publisher=University of California |via=ProQuest |isbn=978-0-549-84437-2 |pages=11–12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rX6xfoEaYtQC&pg=PA12 |quote=Classical Greek philosophers like Aristotle, Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius wrote about the existence of friction, the effect of lubricants and the advantages of metal bearings around 350 B.C.}}</ref> They were aware of differences between static and kinetic friction with [[Themistius]] stating in 350 {{Smallcaps2|A.D.}} that "it is easier to further the motion of a moving body than to move a body at rest".<ref name=Chatterjee2008/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Fishbane |first1=Paul M. |last2=Gasiorowicz |first2=Stephen |last3=Thornton |first3=Stephen T. |year=1993 |title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers |edition=Extended |volume=I |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-663246-7 |page=135 |quote=Themistius first stated around 350 {{Smallcaps2|{{sic|B.C.|expected=A.D.}}}} that kinetic friction is weaker than the maximum value of static friction.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hecht |first=Eugene |date=2003 |title=Physics: Algebra/Trig |edition=3rd |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-534-37729-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sambursky |first=Samuel |date=2014 |title=The Physical World of Late Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-5898-9 |pages=65–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yvz_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65}}</ref>

The classic laws of sliding friction were discovered by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]  in 1493, a pioneer in [[tribology]], but the laws documented in his notebooks were not published and remained unknown.<ref name="Dowson" >{{cite book |last=Dowson |first=Duncan |year=1997 |title=History of Tribology |edition=2nd |publisher=Professional Engineering Publishing |isbn=978-1-86058-070-3}}</ref><ref name="Armstrong" >{{cite book |last=Armstrong-Hélouvry |first=Brian |year=1991 |title=Control of machines with friction |publisher=Springer |location=USA |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0zk_zI3xACgC&pg=PA10 |isbn=978-0-7923-9133-3}}</ref><ref name="VanBeek">{{cite web |last=van Beek |first=Anton |title=History of Science Friction |publisher=tribology-abc.com |url=http://www.tribology-abc.com/abc/history.htm |access-date=2011-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hutchings |first=Ian M.  |date=2016 |title=Leonardo da Vinci's studies of friction |journal=Wear  |volume=360–361  |pages=51–66  |doi=10.1016/j.wear.2016.04.019 |url=http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/uploads/Hutchings_Leonardo_Friction_2016_v2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803211351/http://www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk/uploads/Hutchings_Leonardo_Friction_2016_v2.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hutchings |first=Ian M. |date=2016-08-15 |title=Leonardo da Vinci's studies of friction |journal=Wear |doi=10.1016/j.wear.2016.04.019 |volume=360–361 |pages=51–66 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/255781 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kirk |first=Tom |date=July 22, 2016 |title=Study reveals Leonardo da Vinci's 'irrelevant' scribbles mark the spot where he first recorded the laws of friction |website=phys.org |url=http://phys.org/news/2016-07-reveals-leonardo-da-vinci-irrelevant.html |access-date=2016-07-26}}</ref> These laws were rediscovered by [[Guillaume Amontons]] in 1699<ref name="Popova 183–190">{{Cite journal|last1=Popova|first1=Elena|last2=Popov|first2=Valentin L.|date=2015-06-01|title=The research works of Coulomb and Amontons and generalized laws of friction|journal=Friction|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=183–190|doi=10.1007/s40544-015-0074-6|doi-access=free}}</ref> and became known as Amonton's three laws of dry friction.   Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities and the force required to raise the weight pressing the surfaces together. This view was further elaborated by [[Bernard Forest de Bélidor]]<ref>[[Bernard Forest de Bélidor|Forest de Bélidor, Bernard]]. "[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b53032692q.r=Belidor%2C%20Bernard%20Forest%20de Richtige Grund-Sätze der Friction-Berechnung]" ("Correct Basics of Friction Calculation"), 1737, (in [[German language|German]])</ref> and [[Leonhard Euler]] (1750), who derived the [[angle of repose]] of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static and kinetic friction.<ref>{{cite web
  | title = Leonhard Euler
  | work = Friction Module
  | publisher = Nano World
  | year = 2002
  | url = http://www.nano-world.org/frictionmodule/content/0200makroreibung/0400historisch/0300euler/?lang=en
  | access-date = 2011-03-25
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110507032615/http://www.nano-world.org/frictionmodule/content/0200makroreibung/0400historisch/0300euler/?lang=en
  | archive-date = 2011-05-07
  
  }}</ref>
[[John Theophilus Desaguliers]] (1734) first recognized the role of [[adhesion]] in friction.<ref name="Goedecke">{{cite book
 | last1  = Goedecke
 | first1 = Andreas 
 | title  = Transient Effects in Friction: Fractal Asperity Creep
 | publisher = Springer Science and Business Media
 | date   = 2014
 | page  = 3
 | url    = https://books.google.com/books?id=kP7EBAAAQBAJ&q=Theophilus+Desaguliers&pg=PA3
 | isbn   = 978-3-7091-1506-0
 }}</ref> Microscopic forces cause surfaces to stick together; he proposed that friction was the force necessary to tear the adhering surfaces apart.
 
The understanding of friction was further developed by [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] (1785).<ref name="Popova 183–190"/> Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose).<ref name="Dowson" /> Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by [[Johann Andreas von Segner]] in 1758.<ref name="Dowson" />
The effect of the time of repose was explained by [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.

[[John Leslie (physicist)|John Leslie]] (1766–1832) noted a weakness in the views of Amontons and Coulomb: If friction arises from a weight being drawn up the inclined plane of successive [[Asperity (materials science)|asperities]], why then isn't it balanced through descending the opposite slope? Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, which should on the whole have the same tendency to accelerate as to retard the motion.<ref name="Dowson" /> In Leslie's view, friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before.

In the long course of the development of the [[law of conservation of energy]] and of the [[first law of thermodynamics]], friction was recognised as a mode of conversion of [[Work (physics)|mechanical work]] into [[heat]]. In 1798, [[Benjamin Thompson]] reported on cannon boring experiments.<ref>[[Benjamin Thompson]] (1798). [https://books.google.com/books?id=6lBFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA80 "An inquiry concerning the source of the heat which is excited by friction,"] ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', '''88''' :   80–102. {{doi|10.1098/rstl.1798.0006}}</ref>

[[Arthur Jules Morin]] (1833) developed the concept of sliding versus rolling friction.

In 1842, [[Julius von Mayer|Julius Robert Mayer]] frictionally generated heat in paper pulp and measured the temperature rise.<ref>Blundell, S.J., Blundell, K.M. (2006). ''Concepts in Thermal Physics'', Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, {{ISBN|978-0-19-856769-1}}, p. 106.</ref> In 1845, Joule published a paper entitled ''The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat'', in which he specified a numerical value for the amount of mechanical work required to "produce a unit of heat", based on the friction of an electric current passing through a resistor, and on the friction of a paddle wheel rotating in a vat of water.<ref>[[James Prescott Joule|Joule, J.P.]] (1845).{{cite journal|last=Joule|first=J. P.|title=On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London|date=1850|volume=140|pages=61–82|doi=10.1098/rstl.1850.0004|url=https://archive.org/stream/philtrans00608634/00608634#page/n0/mode/2up|display-authors=0|doi-access=free}}
</ref>

[[Osborne Reynolds]] (1866) derived the equation of viscous flow.  This completed the classic empirical model of friction (static, kinetic, and fluid) commonly used today in engineering.<ref name="Armstrong" /> In 1877,  [[Fleeming Jenkin]] and [[James Alfred Ewing|J. A. Ewing]] investigated the continuity between static and kinetic friction.<ref>[[Fleeming Jenkin]] & [[James Alfred Ewing]] (1877) "[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/121556#page/322/mode/1up On Friction between Surfaces moving at Low Speeds]", ''[[Philosophical Magazine]]'' Series 5, volume 4, pp 308–10; link from [[Biodiversity Heritage Library]]</ref>

In 1907, [[George H. Bryan|G.H. Bryan]] published an investigation of the foundations of thermodynamics, ''Thermodynamics: an Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications''. He noted that for a driven hard surface sliding on a body driven by it, the work done by the driver exceeds the work received by the body. The difference is accounted for by heat generated by friction.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bryan |first1=George Hartley |title=Thermodynamics, an introductory treatise dealing mainly with first principles and their direct applications |url=https://archive.org/stream/thermodynamicsin00bryauoft/thermodynamicsin00bryauoft_djvu.txt |publisher=Leipzig, Teubner |access-date=23 June 2023 |date=1907}}</ref> Over the years, for example in his 1879 thesis, but particularly in 1926, [[Max Planck|Planck]] advocated regarding the generation of heat by rubbing as the most specific way to define heat, and the prime example of an irreversible thermodynamic process.<ref name="Planck 1926">[[Max Planck|Planck, M.]] (1926). "Über die Begründung des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik", ''Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., Phys. Math. Kl.'', 453—463.</ref>

The focus of research during the 20th century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind friction. [[Frank Philip Bowden]] and [[David Tabor (physicist)|David Tabor]] (1950) showed that, at a [[Microscopic scale|microscopic level]], the actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area.<ref name="VanBeek" />  This actual area of contact, caused by asperities increases with pressure. The development of the [[atomic force microscope]] (ca. 1986)  enabled scientists to study friction at the [[Atomic units|atomic scale]],<ref name="Armstrong" /> showing that, on that scale, dry friction is the product of the inter-surface [[shear stress]] and the contact area. These two discoveries explain Amonton's first law ''(below)''; the macroscopic proportionality between normal force and static frictional force between dry surfaces.

==Laws of dry friction==
The elementary property of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws:
*'''[[Guillaume Amontons#Amontons' Laws of Friction|Amontons']]  First Law''': The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load.
*'''Amontons' Second Law''': The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
*'''[[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb|Coulomb]]'s Law of Friction''': Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

==Dry friction==
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction are 'static friction' ("[[stiction]]") between non-moving surfaces, and ''kinetic friction'' (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces.

Coulomb friction, named after [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]], is an approximate model used to calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the model:
<math display="block">F_\mathrm{f} \leq \mu F_\mathrm{n},</math>
where
*<math>F_\mathrm{f}</math> is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other.  It is parallel to the surface, in a direction opposite to the net applied force.
*<math>\mu</math> is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials,
*<math>F_\mathrm{n}</math> is the [[normal force]] exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal) to the surface.

The Coulomb friction <math>F_\mathrm{f}</math> may take any value from zero up to <math>\mu F_\mathrm{n}</math>, and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence. This maximum force is known as [[Traction (engineering)|traction]].

The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a [[curling]] stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

===Normal force===
[[Image:Free body diagram2.svg|right|200px|thumb|[[Free-body diagram]] for a block on a ramp. Arrows are [[Euclidean vector|vectors]] indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. ''N'' is the normal force, ''mg'' is the force of [[gravity]], and ''F<sub>f</sub>'' is the force of friction.]]

{{Main|Normal force}}

The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together, and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where <math>N=mg\,</math>. In this case, conditions of equilibrium tell us that the magnitude of the friction force is ''zero'', <math>F_f = 0</math>. In fact, the friction force always satisfies <math>F_f\le \mu N</math>, with equality reached only at a critical ramp angle (given by <math>\tan^{-1}\mu</math>) that is steep enough to initiate sliding. 

The friction coefficient is an [[empirical]] (experimentally measured) structural property that depends only on various aspects of the contacting materials, such as surface roughness. The coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the block. 

Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force <math>N</math> might include forces other than gravity. If an object is on a {{em|level surface}} and subjected to an external force <math>P</math> tending to cause it to slide, then the normal force between the object and the surface is just <math>N = mg + P_y</math>, where <math>mg</math> is the block's weight and <math>P_y</math> is the downward component of the external force. Prior to sliding, this friction force is <math>F_f = -P_x</math>, where <math>P_x</math> is the horizontal component of the external force. Thus, <math>F_f \le \mu N</math> in general. Sliding commences only after this frictional force reaches the value <math>F_f = \mu N</math>. Until then, friction is whatever it needs to be to provide equilibrium, so it can be treated as simply a reaction.  

If the object is on a {{em|tilted surface}} such as an inclined plane, the normal force from gravity is smaller than <math>mg</math>, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. The normal force and the frictional force are ultimately determined using [[Vector (geometric)|vector]] analysis, usually via a [[free body diagram]]. 

In general, process for solving any statics problem with friction is to treat contacting surfaces ''tentatively'' as immovable so that the corresponding tangential reaction force between them can be calculated. If this frictional reaction force satisfies <math>F_f \le \mu N</math>, then the tentative assumption was correct, and it is the actual frictional force. Otherwise, the friction force must be set equal to <math>F_f = \mu N</math>, and then the resulting force imbalance would then determine the acceleration associated with slipping.

===Coefficient of friction===
{{see also|Coefficient of traction}}
{{expand section|explanation of why kinetic friction is always lower|date=August 2020}}
The '''coefficient of friction''' (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter [[Mu (letter)|µ]], is a [[Dimensionless quantity|dimensionless]] [[scalar (physics)|scalar]] value which equals the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together, either during or at the onset of slipping. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one. The coefficient of friction between two surfaces of similar metals is greater than that between two surfaces of different metals; for example, brass has a higher coefficient of friction when moved against brass, but less if moved against steel or aluminum.<ref name="Association1921">{{cite book|author=Air Brake Association|title=The Principles and Design of Foundation Brake Rigging|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoNBAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA5| year=1921 |publisher=Air brake association|page=5}}</ref>

For surfaces at rest relative to each other, <math>\mu = \mu_\mathrm{s}</math>, where <math>\mu_\mathrm{s}</math> is the ''coefficient of static friction''. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The coefficient of static friction exhibited by a pair of contacting surfaces depends upon the combined effects of material deformation characteristics and [[surface roughness]], both of which have their origins in the [[chemical bonding]] between atoms in each of the bulk materials and between the material surfaces and any [[adsorption|adsorbed material]]. The [[fractal]]ity of surfaces, a parameter describing the scaling behavior of surface asperities, is known to play an important role in determining the magnitude of the static friction.<ref name="statfric">{{cite journal |last1=Hanaor |first1=D. |last2=Gan |first2=Y. |last3=Einav |first3=I. |year=2016 |title=Static friction at fractal interfaces |journal=Tribology International |volume=93 |pages=229–238 |arxiv=2106.01473 |doi=10.1016/j.triboint.2015.09.016 |s2cid=51900923}}</ref>

For surfaces in relative motion <math>\mu = \mu_\mathrm{k}</math>, where <math>\mu_\mathrm{k}</math> is the ''coefficient of kinetic friction''. The Coulomb friction is equal to <math>F_\mathrm{f}</math>, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.

[[Arthur Morin]] introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction.<ref name="Dowson" /> The coefficient of friction is an [[empirical]] [[measurement]]{{tsp}}{{mdash}}{{tsp}}it has to be measured [[experiment]]ally, and cannot be found through calculations.<ref name="NCBI-20140117">{{cite journal |author1=Valentin L. Popov |title=Generalized law of friction between elastomers and differently shaped rough bodies |journal=Sci. Rep. |date=17 Jan 2014 |volume=4 |page=3750 |doi=10.1038/srep03750 |pmid=24435002 |pmc=3894559 |bibcode=2014NatSR...4E3750P }}</ref> Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is ''usually'' larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon.

Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are rarer, but [[polytetrafluoroethylene|teflon]], for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that ''μ'' is always < 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications ''μ'' < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, [[silicone rubber]] or [[acrylic rubber]]-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1.

While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables like [[temperature]], [[velocity]], [[atmosphere]] and also what are now popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials, namely [[surface roughness|surface structure]].<ref name="statfric" /> For example, a [[copper]] pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

In systems with significant non-uniform stress fields, because local slip occurs before the system slides, the macroscopic coefficient of static friction depends on the applied load, system size, or shape; [[Friction#Laws of dry friction|Amontons’ law]] is not satisfied macroscopically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Otsuki |first1=M. |last2=Matsukawa |first2=H. |date=2013-04-02 |title=Systematic breakdown of Amontons' law of friction for an elastic object locally obeying Amontons' law |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=3 |pages=1586 |doi=10.1038/srep01586|arxiv=1202.1716 }}</ref> 

====Approximate coefficients of friction====
{{Disputed section|date=November 2021}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" data-sort-type="text"|Materials !! colspan="2"|Static Friction, <math>\mu_\mathrm{s}</math> !! colspan="2"|Kinetic/Sliding Friction, <math>\mu_\mathrm{k}\,</math>
|-
|-
!data-sort-type="number"| Dry and clean !!data-sort-type="number"| Lubricated
!data-sort-type="number| Dry and clean !!data-sort-type="number"| Lubricated
|-
! Aluminium
! Steel
| 0.61<ref name=roymech>{{cite web
| url = http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm#method
| title = Friction Factors – Coefficients of Friction
| access-date = 2015-04-27
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190201171526/http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm#method
| archive-date = 2019-02-01

}}</ref>
| 
| 0.47<ref name=roymech/>
|
|-
!Aluminium
!Aluminium
|1.05–1.35<ref name=roymech/>
|0.3<ref name=roymech/>
|1.4<ref name=roymech/>–1.5<ref name=web1>{{Cite web | url=http://mechanicalemax.blogspot.com/2016/03/tribology-introduction.html | title=Mechanical Engineering Department: Tribology Introduction| date=2016-03-11}}</ref>
|
|-
!Gold
!Gold
|
|
|2.5<ref name=web1/>
|
|-
!Platinum
!Platinum
|1.2<ref name=roymech/>
|0.25<ref name=roymech/>
|3.0<ref name=web1/>
|
|-
!Silver
!Silver
|1.4<ref name=roymech/>
|0.55<ref name=roymech/>
|1.5<ref name=web1/>
|
|-
! Alumina ceramic
! Silicon nitride ceramic
| 
|
|
| 0.004 (wet)<ref name=ULFC>{{cite journal
| title = Ultra-low friction coefficient in alumina–silicon nitride pair lubricated with water
| doi=10.1016/j.wear.2012.07.030
| volume=296
| issue = 1–2
| journal=Wear
| pages=656–659| date = 2012-08-30
| last1 = Ferreira
| first1 = Vanderlei
| last2 = Yoshimura
| first2 = Humberto Naoyuki
| last3 = Sinatora
| first3 = Amilton
}}</ref>
|-
! [[Aluminium magnesium boride|BAM (Ceramic alloy AlMgB<sub>14</sub>)]]
! [[Titanium diboride|Titanium boride]] (TiB<sub>2</sub>)
| 0.04–0.05<ref name= ULFC2>{{cite journal
| doi=10.1063/1.1615677
| title=Superhard self-lubricating AlMgB[sub 14] films for microelectromechanical devices
| year=2003
| last1=Tian|first1=Y.|last2=Bastawros|first2=A. F.|last3=Lo|first3=C. C. H.|last4=Constant|first4=A. P.|last5=Russell|first5=A.M.
| last6=Cook|first6=B. A.
| journal=Applied Physics Letters|volume=83|issue=14|page=2781|bibcode = 2003ApPhL..83.2781T | url=http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=mse_pubs
}}</ref>
| 0.02<ref name=ULFC3>{{cite web
| url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16102-material-slicker-than-teflon-discovered-by-accident.html
| title = Material slicker than Teflon discovered by accident
| author = Kleiner, Kurt 
| date = 2008-11-21
| access-date = 2008-12-25}}</ref><ref name =ULFC4>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.wear.2010.11.044
| title=Friction and wear mechanisms in AlMgB14-TiB2 nanocoatings
| year=2011|last1=Higdon|first1=C.|last2=Cook|first2=B.|last3=Harringa|first3=J.
| last4=Russell|first4=A.|last5=Goldsmith|first5=J.|last6=Qu|first6=J.|last7=Blau|first7=P.|journal=Wear|volume=271|issue=9–10
| pages=2111–2115}}</ref> 
|
|
|-
! Brass
! Steel
| 0.35–0.51<ref name=roymech/>
| 0.19<ref name=roymech/>
| 0.44<ref name=roymech/>
|
|-
! Cast iron
! Copper
| 1.05<ref name=roymech/>
|
| 0.29<ref name=roymech/>
| 
|-
! Cast iron
! Zinc
| 0.85<ref name=roymech/> 
|
| 0.21<ref name=roymech/>
| 
|-
! Concrete
! Rubber
| 1.0 
| 0.30 (wet)
| 0.6–0.85<ref name=roymech/>
| 0.45–0.75 (wet)<ref name=roymech/>
|-
! Concrete
! Wood
| 0.62<ref name=roymech/><ref name=engHandbook/>
|
|
|
|-
! Copper
! Glass
| 0.68<ref name="RP1228" /> 
|
| 0.53<ref name="RP1228" /> 
|
|-
! Copper
! Steel
| 0.53<ref name="RP1228" /> 
|
| 0.36<ref name=roymech/><ref name="RP1228" /> 
| 0.18<ref name="RP1228" /> 
|-
! Glass
! Glass
| 0.9–1.0<ref name=roymech/><ref name="RP1228" /> 
| 0.005–0.01<ref name="RP1228" /> 
| 0.4<ref name=roymech/><ref name="RP1228" /> 
| 0.09–0.116<ref name="RP1228" /> 
|-
! Human synovial fluid
! Human cartilage
| 
| 0.01<ref name = synovial>{{cite web
| url = http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2007/ConnieQiu.shtml
| title = Coefficients of Friction of Human Joints
| access-date = 2015-04-27}}</ref>
|
| 0.003<ref name = synovial/> 
|-
! Ice
! Ice
| 0.02–0.09<ref name=eng/>
|
|
| 
|-
! [[Polyethene]]
! Steel
| 0.2<ref name=roymech/><ref name=eng/>
| 0.2<ref name=roymech/><ref name=eng/>
|
|
|-
! [[PTFE]] (Teflon)
! PTFE (Teflon)
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/><ref name=eng>{{cite web
| url = http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/friction-coefficients-d_778.html
| title = The Engineering Toolbox: Friction and Coefficients of Friction
| access-date = 2008-11-23}}</ref>
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/><ref name=eng/>
|
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/>
|-
! Steel
! Ice
| 0.03<ref name=eng/>
|
|
| 
|-
! Steel
! PTFE (Teflon)
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/>−0.2<ref name=eng/>
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/>
|
| 0.04<ref name=roymech/>
|-
! Steel
! Steel
| 0.74<ref name=roymech/>−0.80<ref name=eng/>
| 0.005–0.23<ref name="RP1228" /><ref name=eng/>
| 0.42–0.62<ref name=roymech/><ref name="RP1228" />
| 0.029–0.19<ref name="RP1228" />
|-
! Wood
! Metal
| 0.2–0.6<ref name=roymech/><ref name=engHandbook/>
| 0.2 (wet)<ref name=roymech/><ref name=engHandbook/>
| 0.49<ref name="RP1228" />
| 0.075<ref name="RP1228" />
|-
! Wood
! Wood
| 0.25–0.62<ref name=roymech/><ref name=engHandbook>[http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm Coefficient of Friction] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308124246/http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/frictioncoefficients.htm |date=March 8, 2009 }}. EngineersHandbook.com</ref><ref name="RP1228">{{cite journal |last1=Barrett |first1=Richard T. |title=(NASA-RP-1228) Fastener Design Manual |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19900009424 |website=NASA Technical Reports Server |publisher=NASA Lewis Research Center |access-date=3 August 2020 |page=16 |date=1 March 1990|hdl=2060/19900009424 }}</ref>
| 0.2 (wet)<ref name=roymech/><ref name=engHandbook/>
| 0.32–0.48<ref name="RP1228" />
| 0.067–0.167<ref name="RP1228" />
|}

Under certain conditions some materials have very low friction coefficients. An example is (highly ordered pyrolytic) graphite which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dienwiebel |first=Martin |title=Superlubricity of Graphite |display-authors=etal |journal=Phys. Rev. Lett. |volume=92 |page=126101 |year=2004 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.126101 |url=http://www.physics.leidenuniv.nl/sections/cm/ip/group/PDF/Phys.rev.lett/2004/92(2004)12601.pdf |issue=12 |bibcode=2004PhRvL..92l6101D |pmid=15089689 |s2cid=26811802 }}</ref>
This ultralow-friction regime is called [[superlubricity]].

===Static friction===<!-- Traction (engineering) links here -->
[[File:Static kinetic friction vs time.png|400px|right|thumb|When the mass is not moving, the object experiences static friction.  The friction increases as the applied force increases until the block moves.  After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction, which is less than the maximum static friction.]]
{{Main|Stiction}}

Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as ''μ''<sub>s</sub>, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. Static friction is considered to arise as the result of surface roughness features across multiple length scales at solid surfaces. These features, known as [[Asperity (materials science)|asperities]] are present down to nano-scale dimensions and result in true solid to solid contact existing only at a limited number of points accounting for only a fraction of the apparent or nominal contact area.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283675011_Static_friction_at_fractal_interfaces multi-scale origins of static friction] 2016</ref> The linearity between applied load and true contact area, arising from asperity deformation, gives rise to the linearity between static frictional force and normal force, found for typical Amonton–Coulomb type friction.<ref>{{cite journal | author= Greenwood J.A. and JB Williamson| title= Contact of nominally flat surfaces | journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences | volume=295 | issue=1442 | year=1966}}</ref>

The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: <math>F_\text{max} = \mu_\mathrm{s} F_\text{n}</math>. When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to <math>F_\text{max}</math>. Any force smaller than <math>F_\text{max}</math> attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than <math>F_\text{max}</math> overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicable—the friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction. However, an apparent static friction can be observed even in the case when the true static friction is zero.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nakano|first1=K.|last2=Popov|first2=V. L.|date=2020-12-10|title=Dynamic stiction without static friction: The role of friction vector rotation| url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.102.063001| journal=Physical Review E|volume=102|issue=6|page=063001| doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.102.063001|pmid=33466084 |bibcode=2020PhRvE.102f3001N |hdl=10131/00013921 |s2cid=230599544 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> 
 
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction. Upon slipping, the wheel friction changes to kinetic friction.  An [[anti-lock braking system]] operates on the principle of allowing a locked wheel to resume rotating so that the car maintains static friction.
 
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as '''limiting friction''',<ref name="Bhavikatti">{{cite book
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4wkLl4NvmWAC&pg=PA112
| title = Engineering Mechanics
| last = Bhavikatti
| first = S. S.
|author2=K. G. Rajashekarappa
| page = 112
| access-date = 2007-10-21
| publisher = New Age International
| isbn = 978-81-224-0617-7
| year = 1994}}</ref>
although this term is not used universally.<ref name="Beer"/>

===Kinetic friction===
'''Kinetic friction''', also known as '''dynamic friction''' or '''sliding friction''', occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as ''μ''<sub>k</sub>, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.<ref>{{cite book|title=Statics: Analysis and Design of Systems in Equilibrium |publisher=Wiley and Sons|year=2005 |isbn=978-0-471-37299-8|page=618 |quote=In general, for given contacting surfaces, ''μ''<sub>k</sub> < ''μ''<sub>s</sub> |author1=Sheppard, Sheri|author2=Tongue, Benson H.|author3=Anagnos, Thalia|author1-link=Sheri D. Sheppard}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite book
| title = Engineering Mechanics: Statics
|author1=Meriam, James L. |author2=Kraige, L. Glenn |author3=Palm, William John | publisher = Wiley and Sons
| year = 2002
| page= 330
| quote = Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction force.
| isbn = 978-0-471-40646-4}}</ref> However, [[Richard Feynman]] comments that "with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference."<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/frict2.html
| title = The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I, p. 12–5
| publisher = Addison-Wesley
| year = 1964
|author1=Feynman, Richard P. |author2=Leighton, Robert B. |author3=Sands, Matthew | access-date = 2009-10-16}}</ref>
The friction force between two surfaces after sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of kinetic friction and the normal force: <math>F_{k} = \mu_\mathrm{k} F_{n}</math>. This is responsible for the [[Coulomb damping]] of an [[Oscillation#Damped oscillations|oscillating]] or [[Vibration#Types|vibrating]] system.

New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.<ref name="PerssonVolokitin" >{{cite journal
| title = Theory of rubber friction: Nonstationary sliding
|journal= Physical Review B| volume= 65|page=134106|doi=10.1103/PhysRevB.65.134106
|author1=Persson, B. N. |author2=Volokitin, A. I | year = 2002|bibcode = 2002PhRvB..65m4106P
| issue = 13 |url = http://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/25870/files/17249.pdf}}
</ref> In many other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction.<ref name="PerssonVolokitin" /> Surface roughness and contact area affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persson |first=B. N. J. |title=Sliding friction: physical principles and applications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1jb-nZMnRGYC&q=kinetic+friction |access-date=2016-01-23 |year=2000 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-67192-3}}</ref>

The origin of kinetic friction at nanoscale can be rationalized by an energy model.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Makkonen |first1=L |year=2012 |title=A thermodynamic model of sliding friction |doi=10.1063/1.3699027 |journal=AIP Advances |volume=2 |issue= 1|page=012179 |bibcode=2012AIPA....2a2179M |doi-access=free }}</ref> During sliding, a new surface forms at the back of a sliding true contact, and existing surface disappears at the front of it. Since all surfaces involve the thermodynamic surface energy, work must be spent in creating the new surface, and energy is released as heat in removing the surface. Thus, a force is required to move the back of the contact, and frictional heat is released at the front.

[[File:Free body.svg|thumb|Angle of friction, ''θ'', when block just starts to slide.]]

===Angle of friction===
{{For|the maximum angle of static friction between granular materials|Angle of repose}}
For certain applications, it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the ''angle of friction'' or ''friction angle''. It is defined as:
<math display="block">\tan{\theta} = \mu_\mathrm{s}</math>
and thus:
<math display="block">\theta = \arctan{\mu_\mathrm{s}}</math>
where <math>\theta</math> is the angle from horizontal and ''μ<sub>s</sub>'' is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nichols |first1=Edward Leamington |last2=Franklin |first2=William Suddards |title=The Elements of Physics |publisher=Macmillan |page=101 |year=1898 |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8IlCAAAAIAAJ}}</ref> This formula can also be used to calculate ''μ<sub>s</sub>'' from empirical measurements of the friction angle.

===Friction at the atomic level===
Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing [[nanomachines]]. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a [[cobalt]] atom, and a [[carbon monoxide]] molecule, across surfaces of copper and [[platinum]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ternes |first1=Markus |last2=Lutz |first2=Christopher P. |last3=Hirjibehedin |first3=Cyrus F. |last4=Giessibl |first4=Franz J. |author-link5= Andreas J. Heinrich |last5=Heinrich |first5=Andreas J. |title=The Force Needed to Move an Atom on a Surface |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=319 |issue=5866 |pages=1066–1069 |date=2008-02-22 |doi=10.1126/science.1150288 |pmid=18292336 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1066T |s2cid=451375 |url=https://epub.uni-regensburg.de/25284/1/The%20Force%20Needed%20to%20Move%20an%20Atom%20on%20.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720063201/https://epub.uni-regensburg.de/25284/1/The%20Force%20Needed%20to%20Move%20an%20Atom%20on%20.pdf |archive-date=2018-07-20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Limitations of the Coulomb model===
The Coulomb approximation follows from the assumptions that: surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area; that this [[contact area]] is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact); and that the frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area. The Coulomb approximation is fundamentally an empirical construct. It is a rule-of-thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and versatility. Though the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems.

When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, [[adhesive tape]] resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some [[drag racing]] tires are adhesive for this reason. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications.

===="Negative" coefficient of friction====
{{As of|2012}}, a single study has demonstrated the potential for an ''effectively negative coefficient of friction in the low-load regime'', meaning that a decrease in normal force leads to an increase in friction. This contradicts everyday experience in which an increase in normal force leads to an increase in friction.<ref name=deng2012/>  This was reported in the journal ''Nature'' in October 2012 and involved the friction encountered by an atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene sheet in the presence of graphene-adsorbed oxygen.<ref name=deng2012>{{cite journal |last1=Deng |first1=Zhao |display-authors=etal |date=October 14, 2012 |title=Adhesion-dependent negative friction coefficient on chemically modified graphite at the nanoscale |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |bibcode=2012NatMa..11.1032D |doi=10.1038/nmat3452 |pmid=23064494 |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=1032–7}}
*{{cite magazine |date=2012-10-17 |title=At the nanoscale, graphite can turn friction upside down |magazine=R&D Magazine |url=http://www.rdmag.com/news/2012/10/nanoscale-graphite-can-turn-friction-upside-down |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731031301/http://www.rdmag.com/news/2012/10/nanoscale-graphite-can-turn-friction-upside-down |archive-date=2013-07-31}}</ref>

===Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model===
Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many [[Computer simulation|numerical simulation]] applications such as [[multibody system]]s and [[granular material]]. Even its most simple expression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are required in many applied cases, although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently [[Numerical integration|numerically integrate]] mechanical systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral or unilateral contact.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haslinger |first1=J. |title=Approximation of the Signorini problem with friction, obeying the Coulomb law |journal=Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=422–437 |year=1983 |bibcode=1983MMAS....5..422H |doi=10.1002/mma.1670050127 |last2=Nedlec |first2=J.C. |hdl=10338.dmlcz/104086 |url=http://dml.cz/bitstream/handle/10338.dmlcz/104086/AplMat_29-1984-3_6.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alart |first1=P. |last2=Curnier |first2=A. |title=A mixed formulation for frictional contact problems prone to Newton like solution method |journal=Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering |volume=92 |pages=353–375 |year=1991 |bibcode=1991CMAME..92..353A |doi=10.1016/0045-7825(91)90022-X |issue=3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Acary |first1=V. |last2=Cadoux |first2=F. |last3=Lemaréchal |first3=C. |last4=Malick |first4=J. |title=A formulation of the linear discrete Coulomb friction problem via convex optimization |journal=Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics |volume=91 |issue=2 |pages=155–175 |year=2011 |doi=10.1002/zamm.201000073 |bibcode=2011ZaMM...91..155A |s2cid=17280625 |url=https://hal.inria.fr/inria-00495734/document }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Saxcé |first1=G. |last2=Feng |first2=Z.-Q. |title=The bipotential method: A constructive approach to design the complete contact law with friction and improved numerical algorithms |journal=Mathematical and Computer Modelling |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=225–245 |year=1998 |doi=10.1016/S0895-7177(98)00119-8|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simo |first1=J.C. |last2=Laursen |first2=T.A. |title=An augmented lagrangian treatment of contact problems involving friction |journal=Computers and Structures |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=97–116 |year=1992 |doi=10.1016/0045-7949(92)90540-G|doi-access=free }}</ref> Some quite [[Nonlinear system#Types of nonlinear dynamic behaviors|nonlinear effects]], such as the so-called [[Painlevé paradox]]es, may be encountered with Coulomb friction.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Acary |first1=V. |last2=Brogliato |first2=B. |title=Numerical Methods for Nonsmooth Dynamical Systems. Applications in Mechanics and Electronics |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Verlag Heidelberg]] |volume=35 |year=2008}}</ref>

===Dry friction and instabilities===
Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems which display a stable behaviour in the absence of friction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bigoni |first=D. |title=Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: Bifurcation Theory and Material Instability |publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2012 |isbn=978-1-107-02541-7|date=2012-07-30 }}</ref> 
These instabilities may be caused by the decrease of the friction force with an increasing velocity of sliding, by material expansion due to heat generation during friction (the thermo-elastic instabilities), or by pure dynamic effects of sliding of two elastic materials (the Adams–Martins instabilities). The latter were originally discovered in 1995 by [[George G. Adams (engineer)|George G. Adams]] and [[João Arménio Correia Martins]] for smooth surfaces<ref>{{cite journal |last=Adams |first=G. G. |title=Self-excited oscillations of two elastic half-spaces sliding with a constant coefficient of friction |doi=10.1115/1.2896013 |journal=Journal of Applied Mechanics |year=1995 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=867–872 |bibcode=1995JAM....62..867A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Martins |first=J.A., Faria, L.O. & Guimarães, J. |title=Dynamic surface solutions in linear elasticity and viscoelasticity with frictional boundary conditions |doi=10.1115/1.2874477 |journal=Journal of Vibration and Acoustics |year=1995 |volume=117 |issue=4 |pages=445–451}}</ref> and were later found in periodic rough surfaces.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=M |first1=Nosonovsky |last2=G. |first2=Adams G. |title=Vibration and stability of frictional sliding of two elastic bodies with a wavy contact interface |doi=10.1115/1.1653684 |journal=Journal of Applied Mechanics |year=2004 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=154–161 |bibcode=2004JAM....71..154N }}</ref> In particular, friction-related dynamical instabilities are thought to be responsible for [[Brake#Noise|brake squeal]] and the 'song' of a [[glass harp]],<ref>{{cite journal |last2=J. |first2=Hultén |last1=J. |first1=Flint |title=Lining-deformation-induced modal coupling as squeal generator in a distributed parameter disk brake model |doi=10.1006/jsvi.2001.4052 |bibcode=2002JSV...254....1F |journal= Journal of Sound and Vibration|year=2002 |volume=254 |issue=1 |pages=1–21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=M. |first1=Kröger |last2=M. |first2=Neubauer |last3=K. |first3=Popp |s2cid=16395796 |title=Experimental investigation on the avoidance of self-excited vibrations |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A |doi=10.1098/rsta.2007.2127 |year=2008 |pages=785–810 |volume=366 |issue=1866 |pmid=17947204 |bibcode=2008RSPTA.366..785K }}</ref> phenomena which involve stick and slip, modelled as a drop of friction coefficient with velocity.<ref>{{cite journal |last2=L. |first2=Ruina, A. |last1=R. |first1=Rice, J. |title=Stability of Steady Frictional Slipping |journal=Journal of Applied Mechanics |volume=50 |year=1983 |pages=343–349 |url=http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/friction_and_fracture/stability_steady.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622193459/http://ruina.tam.cornell.edu/research/topics/friction_and_fracture/stability_steady.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-22 |url-status=live |doi=10.1115/1.3167042 |issue=2 |bibcode=1983JAM....50..343R |citeseerx=10.1.1.161.5207 }}</ref>

A practically important case is the [[self-oscillation]] of the strings of [[bowed instruments]] such as the [[violin]], [[cello]], [[hurdy-gurdy]], [[erhu]], etc.

A connection between dry friction and [[Aeroelastic flutter#Flutter|flutter]] instability in a simple mechanical system has been discovered,<ref>{{cite journal
 |url          = http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni
 |author1      = Bigoni, D.
 |author2      = Noselli, G.
 |title        = Experimental evidence of flutter and divergence instabilities induced by dry friction
 |journal      = Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids
 |year         = 2011
 |volume       = 59
 |pages        = 2208–2226
 |doi          = 10.1016/j.jmps.2011.05.007
 |issue        = 10
 |bibcode      = 2011JMPSo..59.2208B
 |citeseerx    = 10.1.1.700.5291
 |access-date  = 2011-11-30
 |archive-date = 2020-08-18
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20200818112658/http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/
 
}}</ref> watch the [http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/flutter.html movie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110065917/http://www.ing.unitn.it/~bigoni/flutter.html |date=2015-01-10 }} for more details.

Frictional instabilities can lead to the formation of new self-organized patterns (or "secondary structures") at the sliding interface, such as in-situ formed tribofilms which are utilized for the reduction of friction and wear in so-called self-lubricating materials.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Friction-Induced Vibrations and Self-Organization: Mechanics and Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics of Sliding Contact
| first = Michael
| last = Nosonovsky
| year = 2013
| publisher = CRC Press
| isbn = 978-1-4665-0401-1 
| url = http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781466504011
| page = 333}}</ref>

==Fluid friction{{anchor|Fluid}}==
{{Main|Viscosity|Drag (physics)}}

Fluid friction occurs between [[fluid]] layers that are moving relative to each other. This internal resistance to flow is named ''[[viscosity]]''. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid is described as its "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its ease of deformation or movement.

All real fluids (except [[superfluid]]s) offer some resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous. For teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the concept of an inviscid fluid or an [[ideal fluid]] which offers no resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

==Lubricated friction==
{{Main|Lubrication}}

Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces.

In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

==Skin friction==
{{Main|Parasitic drag}}

Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the [[drag equation]] and rises with the square of the velocity.

Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the [[boundary layer]] around the object. There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as much as is practicable.

==Internal friction==
{{Main|Plastic deformation of solids}}
{{See also|Deformation (engineering)}}
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes [[deformation (engineering)|deformation]].

[[Deformation (engineering)#Plastic deformation|Plastic deformation]] in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature. The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called [[stress (mechanics)|stress]].

[[Elastic deformation]] in solids is reversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is known as elastic deformation or elasticity.

==Radiation friction==
As a consequence of light pressure, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]<ref>{{cite book|last= Einstein, A.|title=On the development of our views concerning the nature and constitution of radiation. Translated in: The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, vol. 2 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1989)|date=1909|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=391}}</ref> in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose the movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backward-acting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than the force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief."

==Other types of friction==

===Rolling resistance===
{{Main|Rolling resistance}}

Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction.<ref>Silliman, Benjamin (1871) ''Principles of Physics, Or Natural Philosophy'', Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & company publishers</ref> Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.<ref>Butt, Hans-Jürgen; Graf, Karlheinz and Kappl, Michael (2006) ''Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces'', Wiley, {{ISBN|3-527-40413-9}}</ref>
One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of [[motor vehicle]] tires on a [[road]], a process which generates heat and [[roadway noise|sound]] as by-products.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hogan |first1=C. Michael |s2cid=109914430 |title=Analysis of highway noise |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution |volume=2 |pages=387–392 |year=1973 |doi=10.1007/BF00159677 |issue=3|bibcode=1973WASP....2..387H }}</ref>

===Braking friction===
Any wheel equipped with a [[brake]] is capable of generating a large retarding force, usually for the purpose of slowing and stopping a vehicle or piece of rotating machinery. Braking friction differs from rolling friction because the coefficient of friction for rolling friction is small whereas the coefficient of friction for braking friction is designed to be large by choice of materials for [[brake pad]]s.

===Triboelectric effect===
{{Main|Triboelectric effect}}

Rubbing two materials against each other can lead to charge transfer, either electrons or ions. The energy required for this contributes to the friction. In addition, sliding can cause a build-up of [[electrostatic charge]], which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, [[explosion]]s can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.

===Belt friction===

{{Main|Belt friction}}

Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation.

In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks.

==Reduction==

===Devices===
Devices such as wheels, [[ball bearing]]s, [[roller bearing]]s, and air cushion or other types of [[fluid bearing]]s can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction.

Many [[thermoplastic]] materials such as [[nylon]], [[HDPE]] and PTFE are commonly used in low friction [[Bearing (mechanical)|bearings]]. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Valentin L. Popov |author2=Lars Voll |author3=Stephan Kusche |author4=Qiang Li |author5=Svetlana V. Rozhkova |date=2018|title=Generalized master curve procedure for elastomer friction taking into account dependencies on velocity, temperature and normal force|journal=Tribology International|volume=120|pages=376–380|doi=10.1016/j.triboint.2017.12.047|arxiv=1604.03407|s2cid=119288819}}</ref> For improved wear resistance, very high [[molecular weight]] grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

===Lubricants===
A common way to reduce friction is by using a [[lubricant]], such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called [[tribology]]. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

Superlubricity, a recently discovered effect, has been observed in [[graphite]]: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated.

Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and [[talc]]; [[acoustic lubrication]] actually uses sound as a lubricant.

Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as [[dither]].

==Energy of friction==
According to the law of [[conservation of energy]], no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into thermal energy. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat which raises the thermal energy of the puck and the ice surface. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including [[Aristotle]], wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=Aristotle didn't think in terms of energy, nor of the modern concept of force, concepts invented about two millenia after he died. Please word it more precisely, and give a reference.}}

When an object is pushed along a surface along a path C, the energy converted to heat is given by a [[line integral]], in accordance with the definition of work
   
:<math>E_{th} = \int_C \mathbf{F}_\mathrm{fric}(\mathbf{x}) \cdot d\mathbf{x}\ = \int_C \mu_\mathrm{k}\ \mathbf{F}_\mathrm{n}(\mathbf{x}) \cdot d\mathbf{x}, </math>
where
* <math>\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{fric}</math> is the friction force,
* <math>\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{n}</math> is the vector obtained by multiplying the magnitude of the normal force by a unit vector pointing ''against'' the object's motion,
* <math>\mu_\mathrm{k}</math> is the coefficient of kinetic friction, which is inside the integral because it may vary from location to location (e.g. if the material changes along the path),
* <math>\mathbf{x}</math> is the position of the object.

[[Dissipation]] of energy by friction in a process is a classic example of thermodynamic [[irreversibility]].<ref name="Planck 1926"/>

===Work of friction===
The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in [[polishing]]. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of [[friction welding]]. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. [[hardness|Harder]] corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in relative motion ([[fretting]]) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, [[tolerance (engineering)|fit]] and [[Surface roughness|surface finish]] of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.<ref name="Bayer">{{cite book |last=Bayer |first=Raymond George |title=Mechanical wear |publisher=CRC Press |year=2004 |pages=1, 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q64Kq2HlyucC&q=Physical+wear+is+associated+with+friction&pg=PA3 |access-date=2008-07-07 |isbn=978-0-8247-4620-9}}</ref> For example, bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction.

In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does ''no'' [[mechanical work|work]], because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does ''negative'' work.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Den Hartog |first=J. P. |title=Mechanics |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |page=142 |year=1961 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WRXrtu44W9UC |isbn=978-0-486-60754-2}}</ref> However, friction can do ''positive'' work in certain [[frames of reference]]. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing ''positive'' work.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Minds-on Physics 
| first = William J
| last = Leonard
| year = 2000
| publisher = Kendall/Hunt
| isbn = 978-0-7872-3932-9
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=t_AKvmza5s8C&pg=PA603
| page = 603}}</ref>

When sliding takes place between two rough bodies in contact, the algebraic sum of the works done is different from zero, and the algebraic sum of the quantities of heat gained by the two bodies is equal to the quantity of work lost by friction, and the total quantity of heat gained is positive.<ref name="Bryan 1907">{{cite web |last1=Bryan |first1=George Hartley |title=Thermodynamics, an introductory treatise dealing mainly with first principles and their direct applications |url=https://archive.org/stream/thermodynamicsin00bryauoft/thermodynamicsin00bryauoft_djvu.txt |publisher=Leipzig, Teubner |access-date=23 June 2023 |date=1907|pages=48–49}}{{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>Bridgman, P.W., 1943, ''The Nature of Thermodynamics'', Harvard University Press, pp. 47–56.</ref> In a natural thermodynamic process, the work done by an agency in the surroundings of a thermodynamic system or working body is greater than the work received by the body, because of friction. Thermodynamic work is measured by changes in a body's state variables, sometimes called work-like variables, other than temperature and entropy. Examples of work-like variables, which are ordinary macroscopic physical variables and which occur in conjugate pairs, are pressure – volume, and electric field – electric polarization. Temperature and entropy are a specifically thermodynamic conjugate pair of state variables. They can be affected microscopically at an atomic level, by mechanisms such as friction, thermal conduction, and radiation. The part of the work done by an agency in the surroundings that does not change the volume of the working body but is dissipated in friction, is called [[Isochoric process|isochoric work]]. It is received as heat, by the working body and sometimes partly by a body in the surroundings. It is not counted as thermodynamic work received by the working body.

==Applications==
Friction is an important factor in many [[engineering]] disciplines.

===Transportation===
*[[Vehicle brake|Automobile brakes]] inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical challenge in designing brake systems. [[Disk brakes]] rely on friction between a disc and [[brake pads]] that are squeezed transversely against the rotating disc. In [[drum brakes]], [[brake shoes]] or pads are pressed outwards against a rotating cylinder (brake drum) to create friction. Since braking discs can be more efficiently cooled than drums, disc brakes have better stopping performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/how-do-car-brakes-work|title=How Do Car Brakes Work?|publisher=Wonderopolis|access-date=November 4, 2018}}</ref>
*[[Rail adhesion]] refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails, see [[Frictional contact mechanics]].
*[[Road slipperiness]] is an important design and safety factor for automobiles<ref name="HighFrictionRoad">{{cite web |author=Iskander, R |author2=Stevens, A | url=http://saferroadsconference.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/R-Iskander-Effectiveness-of-the-Application-of-High-Friction-Surfacing-Crash-Reduction.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903131948/http://saferroadsconference.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/R-Iskander-Effectiveness-of-the-Application-of-High-Friction-Surfacing-Crash-Reduction.pdf |archive-date=2017-09-03 |url-status=live | title=Effectiveness of the Application of High Friction Surfacing-Crash-Reduction.pdf |access-date=2017-09-03 }}</ref>
**[[Split friction]] is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car.
**[[Texture (roads)|Road texture]] affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

===Measurement===
*A [[tribometer]] is an instrument that measures friction on a surface.
*A [[profilograph]] is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.

===Household usage===
*Friction is used to heat and ignite [[matchsticks]] (friction between the head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of the match box).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://curiosity.com/topics/how-does-lighting-a-match-work-curiosity/ |title=How Does Lighting A Match Work? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 11, 2015 |website=curiosity.com |publisher=Curiosity |access-date=November 4, 2018 |archive-date=November 5, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105061915/https://curiosity.com/topics/how-does-lighting-a-match-work-curiosity/  }}</ref>
*[[Sticky pad]]s are used to prevent object from slipping off smooth surfaces by effectively increasing the friction coefficient between the surface and the object.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Contact dynamics]]
*[[Contact mechanics]]
*[[Factor of adhesion]]
*[[Friction Acoustics]]
*[[Frictionless plane]]
*[[Galling]]
*[[Lateral adhesion]]
*[[Non-smooth mechanics]]
*[[Normal contact stiffness]]
*[[Stick-slip phenomenon]]
*[[Transient friction loading]]
*[[Triboelectric effect]]
*[[Unilateral contact]]
*[[Friction torque]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==External links==
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Friction |volume=11 |short=x}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190201171526/http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm Coefficients of Friction] – tables of coefficients, plus many links
*[https://www.enggstudy.com/2019/04/measurement-of-friction-power-by-willans-line-method.html Measurement of friction power]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070601020244/http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/ Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips] from the University of New South Wales
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=PT2503&lpg=PT2503 Values for Coefficient of Friction] – ''[[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]]''
*[http://www.tribonet.org/wiki/friction-coefficients-in-atmosphere-and-vacuum/ Coefficients of friction of various material pairs in atmosphere and vacuum].

{{Geotechnical engineering}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Friction| ]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Tribology]]