Electric vehicle

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery or by converting fuel to electricity using a generator or fuel cells.<ref>Asif Faiz; Christopher S. Weaver; Michael P. Walsh (1996). Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles: Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions. World Bank Publications. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-8213-3444-7. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2017.</ref> EVs include road and rail vehicles, electric boats and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

Electric vehicles around the world (left to right, from top):

Electric car, a BMW i4
Electric aircraft, the Solar Impulse 2, which circumnavigated the globe
Electric tram, a Wiener Linien ULF-B in Vienna, Austria
Electric high speed train, N700 Series Shinkansen of JR Central on the San'yo Shinkansen, Japan
Battery electric bus, a BYD bus in Landskrona, Sweden
E-bike, a Geero
Electric truck, Class 8, a Tesla Semi in Rocklin, California
Electric cart, an Italcar Attiva C2S.4

Early electric vehicles first came into existence in the late 19th century, when the Second Industrial Revolution brought forth electrification. Using electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion as it provides a level of quietness, comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline engine cars of the time, but range anxiety due to the limited energy storage offered by contemporary battery technologies hindered any mass adoption of private electric vehicles throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines (both gasoline and diesel engines) were the dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, but electricity-powered locomotion remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line-powered mass transit vehicles like electric trains, trams, monorails and trolley buses, as well as various small, low-speed, short-range battery-powered personal vehicles such as mobility scooters.

Hybrid electric vehicles, where electric motors are used as a supplementary propulsion to internal combustion engines, became more widespread in the late 1990s. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, where electric motors can be used as the predominant propulsion rather than a supplement, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s.Template:Sustainable transport sidebar

Progress in batteries, electric motors and power electronics have made electric cars more feasible than during the 20th century. As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants, and to reduce use of fossil fuels, government incentives are available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric cars and trucks.

History

Electric motive power started in 1827 when Hungarian priest Ányos Jedlik built the first crude but viable electric motor; the next year he used it to power a small model car.<ref name=Guarnieri>Guarnieri, M. (2012). "Looking back to electric cars". 2012 Third IEEE HISTory of ELectro-technology CONference (HISTELCON). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583. ISBN 978-1-4673-3078-7. S2CID 37828220.</ref> In 1835, professor Sibrandus Stratingh of the University of Groningen, in the Netherlands, built a small-scale electric car, and sometime between 1832 and 1839, Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.<ref>Bellis, Mary (16 June 2010). "Inventors – Electric Cars (1890–1930)". Inventors.about.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2010.</ref> American blacksmith and inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomotive, powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.<ref>"History of Railway Electric Traction". Mikes.railhistory.railfan.net. Archived from the original on 24 August 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2010.</ref>

The first mass-produced electric vehicles appeared in America in the early 1900s. In 1902, the Studebaker Automobile Company entered the automotive business with electric vehicles, though it also entered the gasoline vehicles market in 1904. However, with the advent of cheap assembly line cars by Ford Motor Company, the popularity of electric cars declined significantly.<ref name=hendrym>Hendry, Maurice M. Studebaker: One can do a lot of remembering in South Bend. New Albany, Indiana: Automobile Quarterly. pp. 228–275. Vol X, 3rd Q, 1972. p231</ref>

Due to lack of electricity grids<ref name=":4">Taalbi, Josef; Nielsen, Hana (2021). "The role of energy infrastructure in shaping early adoption of electric and gasoline cars". Nature Energy. 6 (10): 970–976. Bibcode:2021NatEn...6..970T. doi:10.1038/s41560-021-00898-3. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 242383930.</ref> and the limitations of storage batteries at that time, electric cars did not gain much popularity; however, electric trains gained immense popularity due to their economies and achievable speeds. By the 20th century, electric rail transport became commonplace due to advances in the development of electric locomotives. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles as platform trucks, forklift trucks, ambulances,<ref>pp.8–9 Batten, Chris Ambulances Osprey Publishing, 4 March 2008</ref> tow tractors, and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float. For most of the 20th century, the UK was the world's largest user of electric road vehicles.<ref>"Escaping Lock-in: the Case of the Electric Vehicle". Cgl.uwaterloo.ca. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2010.</ref>

Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use the valuable oxygen in the mines. Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest rechargeable batteries – the nickel-iron battery – was favored by Edison for use in electric cars.

EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines (ICEs), electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the early 1900s. They were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others, and at one point in history outsold gasoline-powered vehicles. In 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the US were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington, D.C., in their Milburn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles (100–110 km) per charge.<ref>AAA World Magazine. Jan–Feb 2011, p. 53</ref>

Most producers of passenger cars opted for gasoline cars in the first decade of the 20th century, but electric trucks were an established niche well into the 1920s.<ref>Kirsch, David (2000). The electric vehicle and the burden of history. Rutgers University Press.</ref><ref>Mom, Gijs (15 February 2013). The Electric Vehicle: Technology and Expectations in the Automobile Age. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-1268-9.</ref><ref name=":4" /> A number of developments contributed to a decline in the popularity of electric cars.<ref>See Loeb, A.P., "Steam versus Electric versus Internal Combustion: Choosing the Vehicle Technology at the Start of the Automotive Age," Transportation Research Record, Journal of the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, No. 1885, at 1.</ref> Improved road infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Oklahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline/petrol, making internal combustion powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances.<ref name=Britannica>Automobile, archived from the original on 30 April 2015, retrieved 18 July 2009</ref> Electric vehicles were not seldom marketed as a women's luxury car, which may have been a stigma among male consumers.<ref>Scharff, Virginia (1992). Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age. Univ. New Mexico Press.</ref> Also, internal combustion powered cars became ever-easier to operate thanks to the invention of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912,<ref Name=R1>Matthe, Roland; Eberle, Ulrich (1 January 2014). The Voltec System – Energy Storage and Electric Propulsion. Elsevier Science. pp. 151–176. ISBN 978-0-444-59513-3. Archived from the original on 9 October 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2014.</ref> which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars became more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As roads were improved outside urban areas, electric vehicle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, the initiation of mass production of gasoline-powered vehicles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars.<ref name=aboutcom>Bellis, M. (2006), "The Early Years", The History of Electric Vehicles, About.com, archived from the original on 4 July 2021, retrieved 6 July 2006</ref>

In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partnership of General Motors, Firestone, and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. The partnership was convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but was acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services.

The Copenhagen Summit, which was conducted in the midst of a severe observable climate change brought on by human-made greenhouse gas emissions, was held in 2009. During the summit, more than 70 countries developed plans to eventually reach net zero. For many countries, adopting more EVs will help reduce the use of gasoline.<ref>"Net Zero Coalition". United Nations. Retrieved 2 December 2022.</ref>

Experimentation

In January 1990, General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available through three-year leases.<ref>Quiroga, Tony (August 2009). Driving the Future. Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., Inc. p. 52.</ref>

Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this time period. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to:

the auto industry's successful federal court challenge to California's zero-emissions vehicle mandate,
a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousand EV1s and
the success of the oil and auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of EVs.

A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the U.S. government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology.

Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended.

The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009.<ref>Freeman, Sunny (9 December 2009). "The end of Zenn". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Retrieved 25 May 2022.</ref>

Reintroduction

The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.<ref name=IEA_GlobalEVoutlook_2023>"Global EV Outlook 2023 / Trends in electric light-duty vehicles". International Energy Agency. April 2023. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023.</ref>

Sales of passenger electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles.<ref name=BloombergNEF_20230112>Data from McKerracher, Colin (12 January 2023). "Electric Vehicles Look Poised for Slower Sales Growth This Year". BloombergNEF. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023.</ref>

During the late 20th and early 21st century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure.<ref name="Eberle Von Helmolt2010">Eberle, Ulrich; von Helmolt, Rittmar (14 May 2010). "Sustainable transportation based on EV concepts: a brief overview". Energy & Environmental Science. 3 (6): 689. doi:10.1039/c001674h. ISSN 1754-5692. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 8 June 2010.</ref> EVs differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewables such as solar power and wind power, or any combination of those.

The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation.<ref name="NotterKouravelou2015">Notter, Dominic A.; Kouravelou, Katerina; Karachalios, Theodoros; Daletou, Maria K.; Haberland, Nara Tudela (3 July 2015). "Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP". Energy Environ. Sci. 8 (7): 1969–1985. doi:10.1039/C5EE01082A. ISSN 1754-5692.</ref><ref>Notter, Dominic A.; Gauch, Marcel; Widmer, Rolf; Wäger, Patrick; Stamp, Anna; Zah, Rainer; Althaus, Hans-Jörg (1 September 2010). "Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (17): 6550–6556. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.6550N. doi:10.1021/es903729a. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 20695466.</ref> The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking, which recovers kinetic energy, typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board battery.

Electricity sources

There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability.

A passenger train, taking power through a third rail with return through the traction rails

An electric locomotive at Brig, Switzerland

The MAZ-7907 uses an on-board generator to power in-wheel electric motors.

Connection to generator plants

Direct connection to electric grids as is common among electric trains, trams, trolleybuses, and trolleytrucks (See also: overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection)
Online electric vehicle collects power from electric power strips buried under the road surface through electromagnetic induction

Onboard generators and hybrid EVs

Generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel–electric locomotive and diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU)
Generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle
Generated on-board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers
Renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle

It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as:

On-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted highway range<ref>"World's first electrified road for charging vehicles opens in Sweden". Guardian. 12 April 2018. Archived from the original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 1 September 2019.</ref>
On-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source (internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid

For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear marine propulsion.

A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity.

Onboard storage

Template:Electric vehicle These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed.

Full Electric Vehicles (FEV).<ref>Richardson, D.B. (March 2013). "Electric vehicles and the electric grid: A review of modeling approaches, Impacts, and renewable energy integration". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 19: 247–254. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.042.</ref> Power storage methods include:
- Chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: Battery electric vehicle (BEV) typically with a lithium-ion battery
- Kinetic energy storage: flywheels
- Static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors

Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.<ref>Liu, Chaofeng; Neale, Zachary G.; Cao, Guozhong (1 March 2016). "Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries". Materials Today. 19 (2): 109–123. doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2015.10.009.</ref>

Lithium-ion battery

Namsan E-Bus, the first commercially used battery electric bus system which is powered with lithium-ion batteries<ref>Medimorec, Nikola (8 February 2013). "Namsan E-Bus, First Commercial Electric Bus Worldwide". *Kojects*.</ref>

Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium-ion batteries have a higher energy density, longer life span, and higher power density than most other practical batteries.<ref>Armand, Michel; Axmann, Peter; Bresser, Dominic; Copley, Mark; Edström, Kristina; Ekberg, Christian; Guyomard, Dominique; Lestriez, Bernard; Novák, Petr; Petranikova, Martina; Porcher, Willy; Trabesinger, Sigita; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, Margret; Zhang, Heng (15 December 2020). "Lithium-ion batteries – Current state of the art and anticipated developments". Journal of Power Sources. 479: 228708. Bibcode:2020JPS...47928708A. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228708. ISSN 0378-7753. S2CID 225154703.</ref> Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown, environmental impact, and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to operate safely and efficiently.<ref name="LuHan2013">Lu, L.; Han, X.; Li, J.; Hua, J.; Ouyang, M. (2013). "A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles". Journal of Power Sources. 226: 272–288. Bibcode:2013JPS...226..272L. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060. ISSN 0378-7753.</ref>

Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.<ref name="AdanyAurbach2013">Adany, Ron (June 2013). "Switching algorithms for extending battery life in Electric Vehicles". Journal of Power Sources. 231: 50–59. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.075. ISSN 0378-7753.</ref>

In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors.<ref>Mok, Brian. "Types of Batteries Used for Electric Vehicles". large.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.</ref> These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat.<ref>"Alternative Fuels Data Center: Batteries for Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicles". afdc.energy.gov. AFDC. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.</ref> Furthermore, a patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development.<ref>"Chevron and EVs – GM, Chevron and CARB killed the sole NiMH EV once, will do so again". ev1.org. Archived from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.</ref> These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs.<ref>Aditya, Jayam; Ferdowsi, Mehdi. "Comparison of NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications". Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2017.</ref>

The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in the price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases.<ref name="auto1">"Global EV Outlook 2023 – Data product". IEA. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref><ref>"Bloomberg's Latest Forecast Predicts Rapidly Falling Battery Prices". 21 June 2018. Archived from the original on 8 January 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2019.</ref>

Electric motor

The power of a vehicle's electric motor, as in other machines, is measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with a 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed.

Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger,<ref>Voelcker, John (10 April 2021). "EVs Explained: Charging Losses". Car and Driver. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</ref> and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.

For electric trains, forklift trucks, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, induction motors within Tesla Motor vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.<ref name="WidmerMartin2015">Widmar, Martin (2015). "Electric vehicle traction motors without rare earth magnets". Sustainable Materials and Technologies. 3: 7–13. doi:10.1016/j.susmat.2015.02.001. ISSN 2214-9937.</ref>

Energy and motors

Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable if the system is large enough to use the power generated by descending vehicles.

In the systems above, motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services.

Vehicle types

It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power-train.

Ground vehicles

Pure-electric vehicles

A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is powered exclusively through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery (battery electric vehicle), solar panel (solar vehicle) or fuel cell (fuel cell vehicle).

Hybrid EVs

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There are different ways that a hybrid electric vehicle can combine the power from an electric motor and the internal combustion engine. The most common type is a parallel hybrid that connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. In this scenario, the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly. Series hybrids only use the electric motor to drive the wheels and can often be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs). There are also series-parallel hybrids where the vehicle can be powered by the engine working alone, the electric motor on its own, or by both working together; this is designed so that the engine can run at its optimum range as often as possible.<ref>Spendiff-Smith, Matthew (18 March 2022). "Electric Vehicles Types – A Complete Guide to Types of EV – EVESCO". Power Sonic.</ref>

Plug-in electric vehicle

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref name=PEVs>David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 7 July 2013. See definition on pp. 2.</ref><ref name=CSE>"Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)". Center for Sustainable Energy, California. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2010.</ref><ref>"PEV Frequently Asked Questions". Duke Energy. Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2010.</ref>

Range-extended electric vehicle

A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine is used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary source of power.<ref name=":1">"Electric road vehicles in the European Union" (PDF). europa.eu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2020.</ref>

On- and off-road EVs

On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric trolleybuses, electric buses, battery electric buses, electric trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles and scooters, personal transporters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts, milk floats, and forklifts. Off-road vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and electric tractors.

Railborne EVs

A streetcar (or tram) in Hanover drawing current from a single overhead wire through a pantograph

The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails, eliminating the need for heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives, electric multiple units, electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric light rail systems, and electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia.

Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives. In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into the electrical grid rather than wasting it.

Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs.<ref>"-Maglev Technology Explained". North American Maglev Transport Institute. 1 January 2011. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.</ref>

There are also battery electric passenger trains operating on non-electrified rail lines.

Seaborne EVs

Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have given motorboats the infinite range of sailboats. Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines.<ref>"Oceanvolt – Complete Electric Motor Systems". Oceanvolt. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2012.</ref> Electric ferries operate routinely.<ref>Stensvold, Tore. "Lønnsomt å bytte ut 70 prosent av fergene med batteri- eller hybridferger Archived 5 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine" Teknisk Ukeblad, 14. August 2015.</ref> Submarines use batteries (charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel cells<ref>"S-80: A Sub, for Spain, to Sail Out on the Main". Defense Industry Daily. 15 December 2008. Archived from the original on 24 February 2010. Retrieved 17 December 2009.</ref> or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers.

Airborne EVs

Since the beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying electric aircraft include piloted and unpiloted aerial vehicles.

Electrically powered spacecraft

Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft.<ref name='Ion 1964'>"Contributions to Deep Space 1". 14 April 2015. Archived from the original on 10 December 2004. Retrieved 4 August 2016.</ref><ref name="Cybulski">Cybulski, Ronald J.; Shellhammer, Daniel M.; Lovell, Robert R.; Domino, Edward J.; Kotnik, Joseph T. (1965). "Results from SERT I Ion Rocket Flight Test" (PDF). NASA. NASA-TN-D-2718. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 12 November 2020.</ref> The power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with electricity include the arcjet rocket, the electrostatic ion thruster, the Hall-effect thruster, and Field Emission Electric Propulsion.

Space rover vehicles

Crewed and uncrewed vehicles have been used to explore the Moon and other planets in the Solar System. On the last three missions of the Apollo program in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove silver-oxide battery-powered Lunar Roving Vehicles distances up to 35.7 kilometers (22.2 mi) on the lunar surface.<ref>Lyons, Pete; "10 Best Ahead-of-Their-Time Machines", Car and Driver, Jan. 1988, p.78</ref> Uncrewed, solar-powered rovers have explored the Moon and Mars.<ref>"Technologies of Broad Benefit: Power". Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 6 September 2018.</ref><ref>"Soviet Union Lunar Rovers". Archived from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.</ref>

Records

Rimac Nevera, an electric hypercar, set 23 world speed records in one day.<ref>Ulrich, Lawrence. "Rimac Nevera EV Sets 23 World Speed Records: Zero to 400 kilometers per hour and back again in under 30 seconds was just one of them". IEEE Spectrum.</ref><ref>Doll, Scooter. "Rimac Nevera electric hypercar sets 23 records in single day, including fastest 0–249 mph time". Electrek.</ref>
Fastest acceleration of an electric car, 0 to 100 km/h in 1.461 seconds by university students at the University of Stuttgart.<ref>Addow, Amina. "Electric car goes from 0 to 100 km/h in 1.461 seconds". Guinness World Records.</ref>
Electric Land Speed Record 353 mph (568 km/h).<ref>"interestingengineering.com". November 2021.</ref>
Electric Car Distance Record 1,725 miles (2,776 km) in 24 hours by Bjørn Nyland.<ref>Holl, Maximilian (5 July 2019). "Tesla Model 3 Breaks World EV Distance Record — 2,781 km (1,728 mi) Travelled in 24 Hours". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 15 May 2022.</ref>
Greatest distance by electric vehicle, single charge 999.5 miles (1,608.5 km).<ref>"Greatest distance by electric vehicle, single charge (non-solar)". Guinness World Records. 16 October 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2022.</ref>
Solar-powered EV is fastest EV to go over 1,000 km without stopping to recharge, the Sunswift 7.<ref>Jamieson, Craig. "This solar-powered EV is a world-record-breaking speed machine*". BBC Top Gear. BBC Studios.</ref>
Electric Motorcycle: 1,070 miles (1,720 km) under 24 hours. Michel von Tell on a Harley LiveWire.<ref>"Harley-Davidson's LiveWire EV | GreenCars". www.greencars.com. Retrieved 15 May 2022.</ref>
Electric flight: 439.5 miles (707.3 km) without charge.<ref>Toll, Micah (29 August 2020). "Believe it or not, this electric plane is set to break 7 world records in one trip". Electrek. Retrieved 15 May 2022.</ref>

Properties

Components

The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.

Energy sources

EVs are much more efficient than fossil fuel vehicles and have few direct emissions. At the same time, they do rely on electrical energy that is generally provided by a combination of non-fossil fuel plants and fossil fuel plants. Consequently, EVs can be made less polluting overall by modifying the source of electricity. In some areas, persons can ask utilities to provide their electricity from renewable energy.

Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.

Batteries

An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) in addition to the traction battery specialty systems used for industrial (or recreational) vehicles, are batteries used to power the propulsion system of a battery electric vehicle (BEVs). These batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery, and are typically lithium-ion batteries.

Traction batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.<ref name="Seitz1994">Seitz, C.W. (May 1994). "Industrial battery technologies and markets". IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine. 9 (5): 10–15. doi:10.1109/62.282509. ISSN 0885-8985. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</ref><ref name="Tofield1985">Tofield, Bruce C. (1985). "Future Prospects for All-Solid-State Batteries". Solid State Batteries. Springer Netherlands. p. 424. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-5167-9_29. ISBN 978-94-010-8786-5. Retrieved 3 September 2022.</ref>

Efficiency

EVs convert over 59–62% of grid energy to the wheels. Conventional gasoline vehicles convert around 17–21%.<ref>"All-Electric Vehicles". www.fueleconomy.gov. Archived from the original on 17 December 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2020.</ref>

Charging

Grid capacity

If almost all road vehicles were electric it would increase global demand for electricity by up to 25% by 2050 compared to 2020.<ref>"EVO Report 2021 | BloombergNEF | Bloomberg Finance LP". BloombergNEF. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.</ref> However, overall energy consumption and emissions would diminish because of the higher efficiency of EVs over the entire cycle, and the reduction in energy needed to refine fossil fuels.

Charging stations

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Battery swapping

Instead of recharging EVs from electric sockets, batteries could be mechanically replaced at special stations in a few minutes (battery swapping).

Batteries with greater energy density such as metal-air fuel cells cannot always be recharged in a purely electric way, so some form of mechanical recharge may be used instead. A zinc–air battery, technically a fuel cell, is difficult to recharge electrically so may be "refueled" by periodically replacing the anode or electrolyte instead.<ref>Dobley, Arthur (2013). "1: Catalytic Batteries". In Suib, Steven (ed.). New and Future Developments in Catalysis: Batteries, Hydrogen Storage and Fuel Cells. Elsevier. p. 13. ISBN 9780444538819. Retrieved 29 October 2022.</ref>

Dynamic charging

Dynamic charging technologies tested in Sweden<ref name="TRL">D Bateman; et al. (8 October 2018), *Electric Road Systems: a solution for the future* (PDF), TRL, archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020, retrieved 10 February 2021</ref><ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01">*Analysera förutsättningar och planera för en utbyggnad av elvägar*, Swedish Transport Administration, 2 February 2021, archived from the original on 3 February 2021, retrieved 10 February 2021</ref><ref name="regulations-2021">*Regler för statliga elvägar SOU 2021:73* (PDF), Regeringskansliet (Government Offices of Sweden), 1 September 2021, pp. 69–87, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 September 2021</ref>
Type (and developer)	Power per receiver (and power pending further development)	Million SEK per km road both ways	References
Overhead power lines (Siemens)	650 kW (1000 kW)	12.4	<ref name="TRL"/>^{: 140–144} <ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />^{: 23–24, 54}
Ground-level power supply through in-road rail (Elways and NCC consortium)	200 kW (800 kW)	9.4–10.5	<ref name="TRL"/>^{: 146–149} <ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />^{: 21–23, 54}
Ground-level power supply through on-road rail (Elonroad and ABB consortium)	150 kW (500 kW)	11.5–15.3	<ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />^{: 25–26, 54}
Wireless power transfer through in-road inductive coils (Electreon)	25 kW (40 kW)	19.5–20.8	<ref name="TRL"/>^{: 171–172} <ref name="trafikverket-2021-02-01" />^{: 26–28, 54}

TRL (formerly Transport Research Laboratory) lists three power delivery types for dynamic charging, or charging while the vehicle is in motion: overhead power lines, and ground level power through rail or induction. TRL lists overhead power as the most technologically mature solution which provides the highest levels of power, but the technology is unsuitable for non-commercial vehicles. Ground-level power is suitable for all vehicles, with rail being a mature solution with high transfer of power and easily accessible and inspected elements. Inductive charging delivers the least power and requires more roadside equipment than the alternatives.<ref name="TRL" />^{: Appendix D}

The European Commission published in 2021 a request for regulation and standardization of electric road systems.<ref>European Commission (14 July 2021), Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, and repealing Directive 2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council</ref> Shortly afterward, a working group of the French Ministry of Ecology recommended adopting a European electric road standard formulated with Sweden, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, and others.<ref name="FR-1">Patrick Pélata; et al. (July 2021), Système de route électrique. Groupe de travail n°1 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2021</ref> The first standard for electrical equipment on-board a vehicle powered by a rail electric road system (ERS), CENELEC Technical Standard 50717, has been approved in late 2022.<ref name="TS50717">"PD CLC/TS 50717 Technical Requirements for Current Collectors for ground-level feeding system on road vehicles in operation", The British Standards Institution, 2022, archived from the original on 2 January 2023, retrieved 2 January 2023</ref> Following standards, encompassing "full interoperability" and a "unified and interoperable solution" for ground-level power supply, are scheduled to be published by the end 2024, detailing complete "specifications for communication and power supply through conductive rails embedded in the road".<ref>Final draft: Standardization request to CEN-CENELEC on 'Alternative fuels infrastructure' (AFI II) (PDF), European Commission, 2 February 2022, archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2022, retrieved 2 January 2023</ref><ref>Matts Andersson (4 July 2022), Regulating Electric Road Systems in Europe – How can a deployment of ERS be facilitated? (PDF), CollERS2 – Swedish German research collaboration on Electric Road Systems</ref>

Other in-development technologies

Conventional electric double-layer capacitors are being worked on to achieve the energy density of lithium-ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. High-K electric double-layer capacitors, such as EEStor's EESU, could improve lithium ion energy density several times over if they can be produced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250 Wh/kg.<ref>Choi, Yun Seok; Kim, Seok; Choi, Soo Seok; Han, Ji Sung; Kim, Jan Dee; Jeon, Sang Eun; Jung, Bok Hwan (30 November 2004). "Electrochimica Acta : Effect of cathode component on the energy density of lithium–sulfur battery". Electrochimica Acta. 50 (2–3): 833–835. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2004.05.048.</ref> Sodium-ion batteries promise 400 Wh/kg with only minimal expansion/contraction during charge/discharge and a very high surface area, and rely on lower cost materials than Lithium-ion, Leading to Cheaper batteries that do not require critical minerals.<ref name="auto">"Global EV Outlook 2023 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref>

Safety

The United Nations in Geneva (UNECE) has adopted the first international regulation (Regulation 100) on safety of both fully electric and hybrid electric cars, with the intent of ensuring that cars with a high voltage electric power train, such as hybrid and fully-electric vehicles, are as safe as combustion-powered cars. The EU and Japan have already indicated that they intend to incorporate the new UNECE Regulation in their respective rules on technical standards for vehicles.<ref>"EUROPA Press Releases – Car safety: European Commission welcomes international agreement on electric and hybrid cars". Europa (web portal). 10 March 2010. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2010.</ref>

Environmental

Learning curve of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.<ref>Ziegler, Micah S.; Trancik, Jessika E. (2021). "Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline". *Energy & Environmental Science*. 14 (4): 1635–1651. arXiv:2007.13920. doi:10.1039/D0EE02681F. ISSN 1754-5692. S2CID 220830992.</ref><ref>"The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades". *Our World in Data*. Retrieved 26 April 2022.</ref>

EVs release no tailpipe air pollutants, and reduce respiratory illnesses such as asthma.<ref>Garcia, Erika; Johnston, Jill; McConnell, Rob; Palinkas, Lawrence; Eckel, Sandrah P. (1 April 2023). "California's early transition to electric vehicles: Observed health and air quality co-benefits". Science of the Total Environment. 867: 161761. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.867p1761G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161761. ISSN 0048-9697. PMC 10465173. PMID 36739036. S2CID 256572849.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC embargo expired (link)</ref> However, EVs are charged with electricity that may be generated by means that have health and environmental impacts.<ref>Michalek; Chester; Jaramillo; Samaras; Shiau; Lave (2011). "Valuation of plug-in vehicle life cycle air emissions and oil displacement benefits". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (40): 16554–16558. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10816554M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1104473108. PMC 3189019. PMID 21949359.</ref><ref>Tessum; Hill; Marshall (2014). "Life cycle air quality impacts of conventional and alternative light-duty transportation in the United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (52): 18490–18495. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11118490T. doi:10.1073/pnas.1406853111. PMC 4284558. PMID 25512510.</ref>

The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are in the majority of cases less than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle.<ref>"A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars | International Council on Clean Transportation". theicct.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</ref> EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.<ref>Choma, Ernani F.; Evans, John S.; Hammitt, James K.; Gómez-Ibáñez, José A.; Spengler, John D. (1 November 2020). "Assessing the health impacts of electric vehicles through air pollution in the United States". Environment International. 144: 106015. Bibcode:2020EnInt.14406015C. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.106015. ISSN 0160-4120. PMID 32858467.</ref>

One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from ICEs to EVs will not free up road space for active travel or public transport.<ref>Gössling, Stefan (3 July 2020). "Why cities need to take road space from cars – and how this could be done". Journal of Urban Design. 25 (4): 443–448. doi:10.1080/13574809.2020.1727318. ISSN 1357-4809.</ref> Electric micromobility vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.<ref>"e-bike carbon savings – how much and where? – CREDS". 18 May 2020. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.</ref>

Internal combustion engined vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.<ref>"Electric Cars Need Way Less Raw Materials Than ICE Vehicles". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021.</ref>

Lithium-ion batteries

Since their first commercial release in 1991, lithium-ion batteries have become an important technology for achieving low-carbon transportation systems. Information regarding the sustainability of production process of batteries has become a politically charged topic.<ref name=":0">Agusdinata, Datu Buyung; Liu, Wenjuan; Eakin, Hallie; Romero, Hugo (27 November 2018). "Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda". Environmental Research Letters. 13 (12): 123001. Bibcode:2018ERL....13l3001B. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1. ISSN 1748-9326.</ref>Template:Obsolete source

Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed standards on the governance of technology worldwide.<ref name=":0" />

The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and environmental commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.<ref>Schöggl, Josef-Peter; Fritz, Morgane M.C.; Baumgartner, Rupert J. (September 2016). "Toward supply chain-wide sustainability assessment: a conceptual framework and an aggregation method to assess supply chain performance". Journal of Cleaner Production. 131: 822–835. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.035. ISSN 0959-6526.</ref>

One source estimates that over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035.<ref name=":5" /> On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs.<ref name=":5">"Electric car batteries need far less raw materials than fossil-fuel cars – study Archived 2 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine". transportenvironment.org. Retrieved 1 November 2021.</ref>

In 2022, the manufacturing of an EV emitted on average around 50% more CO2 than an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle, but this difference is more than offset by the much higher emissions from the oil used in driving an internal combustion engine Vehicle over its lifetime compared to those from generating the electricity used for driving the EV.<ref>"Energy Technology Perspectives 2023 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref>

In 2023, Greenpeace issued a video criticizing the view that EVs are "silver bullet for climate", arguing that the construction phase has a high environmental impact. For example, the rise in SUV sales by Hyundai almost eliminate the climate benefits of passing to EV in this company, because even electric SUVs have a high carbon footprint as they consume much raw materials and energy during construction. Greenpeace proposes a mobility as a service concept instead, based on biking, public transport and ride sharing.<ref>"Myths Shattered: The Truth About Electric Cars in Today's Auto Industry". Greenpeace international. Retrieved 21 November 2023.</ref>

Socio-economic

A 2003 study in the United Kingdom found that "[p]ollution is most concentrated in areas where young children and their parents are more likely to live and least concentrated in areas to which the elderly tend to migrate," and that "those communities that are most polluted and which also emit the least pollution tend to be amongst the poorest in Britain."<ref>Mitchell G, Dorling D. An Environmental Justice Analysis of British Air Quality. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 2003;35(5):909–929. doi:10.1068/a35240</ref> A 2019 UK study found that "households in the poorest areas emit the least NOx and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further."<ref>Barnes, Joanna H.; Chatterton, Tim J.; Longhurst, James W.S. (August 2019). "Emissions vs exposure: Increasing injustice from road traffic-related air pollution in the United Kingdom". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 73: 56–66. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2019.05.012. S2CID 197455092.</ref>

Mechanical

Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency<ref>"Better Place" (PDF).^{[permanent dead link]}</ref> over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters.

EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">"Transport: Electric vehicles". European Commission. Archived from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 19 September 2009.</ref> While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.<ref>"Nissan Adds 'Beautiful' Noise to Make Silent Electric Cars Safe". Bloomberg L.P. 18 September 2009. Retrieved 12 February 2010.</ref>

Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.

Energy resilience

Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources; therefore, it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.<ref>"Our Electric Future – The American, A Magazine of Ideas". American.com. Archived from the original on 25 August 2014. Retrieved 26 December 2010.</ref>

Energy efficiency

EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of three higher than internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref name="ec.europa.eu" /> Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. In 2022, EVs enabled a net reduction of about 80 Mt of GHG emissions, on a well to-wheels basis, and the net GHG benefit of EVs will increase over time as the electricity sector is decarbonised.<ref name="auto" />

Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuels to renewable energy, such as wind power, tidal power, solar power, and nuclear power. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure – in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.^{[citation needed]}

The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the most carbon-intensive electricity in Europe, they emit less greenhouse gases than a conventional diesel vehicle.<ref>Lepetit, Yoann (October 2017). "Electric vehicle life cycle analysis and raw material availability" (PDF). Transport & Environment. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 22 February 2018.</ref>

Total cost

As of 2021^[update] the purchase price of an EV is often more, but the total cost of ownership of an EV varies wildly depending on location<ref>"2020 European total cost of ownership for electric vehicles vs internal combustion engine vehicles | Nickel Institute". nickelinstitute.org. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</ref> and distance travelled per year:<ref>"Electric cars already cheapest option today for many consumers, new study finds | www.beuc.eu". www.beuc.eu. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</ref> in parts of the world where fossil fuels are subsidized, lifecycle costs of diesel or gas-powered vehicle are sometimes less than a comparable EV.<ref>"Trends and developments in electric vehicle markets – Global EV Outlook 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.</ref>

European carmakers face significant pressure from more affordable Chinese models and price cuts by US-based Tesla Motor. From 2021 to 2022, the European market share of Chinese EV manufacturers doubled to almost 9%, prompting the CEO of Stellantis to describe it as an "invasion".<ref>Guillaume, Gilles; Piovaccari, Giulio (27 July 2023). "Western car makers look to slash EV costs to fight Chinese 'invasion'". Reuters.</ref>

Range

Electric vehicles may have shorter range compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines,<ref>"Explaining Electric & Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles | US EPA". US EPA. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.</ref><ref>"Electric vehicle price is rising, but cost-per-mile is falling". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 4 June 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018.</ref> which is why the electrification of long-distance transport, such as long-distance shipping, remains challenging.

In 2022, the sales-weighted average range of small BEVs sold in the United States was nearly 350 km, while in France, Germany and the United Kingdom it was just under 300 km, compared to under 220 km in China.<ref name="auto"/>

Heating of EVs

Well insulated cabins can heat the vehicle using the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder climates as a driver delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A heat pump system, capable of cooling the cabin during summer and heating it during winter, is an efficient way of heating and cooling EVs.<ref>Beedham, Matthew (3 February 2021). "What's a heat pump and why do EVs use them?". TNW | Shift. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021.</ref> For vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Most new electric cars come with heat pumps as standard.<ref>"Heat pumps in electric vehicles: What are they for? | Inquieto". 26 July 2023. Retrieved 5 November 2023.</ref>

Electric public transit efficiency

Shifts from private to public transport (train, trolleybus, personal rapid transit or tram) have the potential for large gains in efficiency in terms of an individual's distance traveled per kWh.

Research shows people prefer trams to buses,<ref>"Trams, energy saving, private cars, trolley buses, diesel buses | Claverton Group". Claverton-energy.com. 28 May 2009. Archived from the original on 19 September 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2009.</ref> because they are quieter and more comfortable and perceived as having higher status.<ref>"SUSTAINABLE LIGHT RAIL | Claverton Group". Claverton-energy.com. 21 November 2008. Archived from the original on 16 September 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2009.</ref> Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient form of public transportation, with rubber-wheeled vehicles using two-thirds more energy than the equivalent tram, and run on electricity rather than fossil fuels.

In terms of net present value, they are also the cheapest – Blackpool trams are still running after 100 years,<ref>"Blackpool Trams – Then and Now • the seaside way to travel – with Live Blackpool". Blackpool. 9 September 2020. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 26 November 2020.</ref> but combustion buses only last about 15 years.

Government incentivization

The IEA suggests that taxing inefficient internal combustion engine vehicles could encourage adoption of EVs, with taxes raised being used to fund subsidies for EVs.<ref name="auto"/> Government procurement is sometimes used to encourage national EV manufacturers.<ref>"EESL to procure 10,000 Electric Vehicles from TATA Motors". pib.nic.in. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.</ref><ref>Balachandran, Manu. "As India revs up its grand electric vehicles plan, Tata and Mahindra are in the driver's seat". Quartz. Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018.</ref> Many countries will ban sales of fossil fuel vehicles between 2025 and 2040.<ref>"5 things to know about the future of electric vehicles". World Economic Forum. 12 May 2021. Archived from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.</ref>

Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.

Companies selling EVs have partnered with local electric utilities to provide large incentives on some electric vehicles.<ref>"Accelerating the Transition to Electric School Buses | U.S. PIRG Education Fund". uspirgedfund.org. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.</ref>

Future

Public perception

A European survey based on climate found that as of 2022, 39% of European citizens tend to prefer hybrid vehicles, 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles, followed by electric cars which were preferred by 28% of Europeans.<ref name=":03">"2021–2022 EIB Climate Survey, part 2 of 3: Shopping for a new car? Most Europeans say they will opt for hybrid or electric". EIB.org. Retrieved 4 April 2022.</ref> 44% Chinese car buyers are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car.<ref name=":03" />

In a 2023 survey concentrated specifically on electric car ownership in the US, 50% of respondents planning to purchase a future car considered themselves unlikely to seriously consider buying an EV. The survey also found that support for banning the production of non-electric vehicles in the US by 2035 has declined from 47% to 40%.<ref>Spencer, Alison; Ross, Stephanie; Tyson, Alec. "How Americans view electric vehicles". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 9 December 2023.</ref>

Environmental considerations

By reducing types of air pollution, such as nitrogen dioxide, EVs could prevent hundreds of thousands of early deaths every year,<ref>"Zeroing in on Healthy Air". American Lung Association. 2022.</ref><ref>Xiong, Ying; Partha, Debatosh; Prime, Noah; Smith, Steven J; Mariscal, Noribeth; Salah, Halima; Huang, Yaoxian (1 October 2022). "Long-term trends of impacts of global gasoline and diesel emissions on ambient PM 2.5 and O 3 pollution and the related health burden for 2000–2015". Environmental Research Letters. 17 (10): 104042. Bibcode:2022ERL....17j4042X. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac9422. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 252471791.</ref> especially from trucks and traffic in cities.<ref>Carey, John (17 January 2023). "The other benefit of electric vehicles". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120 (3): e2220923120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12020923C. doi:10.1073/pnas.2220923120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 9934249. PMID 36630449.</ref>

The full environmental impact of electric vehicles includes the life cycle impacts of carbon and sulfur emissions, as well as toxic metals entering the environment.

Rare-earth metals (neodymium, dysprosium) and other mined metals (copper, nickel, iron) are used by EV motors, while lithium, cobalt, manganese are used by the batteries.<ref>Månberger, André; Stenqvist, Björn (August 2018). "Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development". Energy Policy. 119: 226–241. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056. S2CID 52227957.</ref><ref name=":2">"Move to net zero 'inevitably means more mining'". BBC News. 24 May 2021. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.</ref> In 2023 the US State Department said that the supply of lithium would need to increase 42-fold by 2050 globally to support a transition to clean energy.<ref>Ewing, Jack; Krauss, Clifford (20 March 2023). "Falling Lithium Prices Are Making Electric Cars More Affordable". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 April 2023.</ref> Most of the lithium ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal burning power plants. A study of hundreds of cars on sale in 2021 concluded that the life cycle GHG emissions of full electric cars are slightly less than hybrids and that both are less than gasoline and diesel fuelled cars.<ref>Buberger, Johannes; Kersten, Anton; Kuder, Manuel; Eckerle, Richard; Weyh, Thomas; Thiringer, Torbjörn (1 May 2022). "Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 159: 112158. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158. ISSN 1364-0321. S2CID 246758071.</ref>

An alternative method of sourcing essential battery materials being deliberated by the International Seabed Authority is deep sea mining, however carmakers are not using this as of 2023.<ref>Halper, Evan (5 April 2023). "Unleash the deep-sea robots? A quandary as EV makers hunt for metals". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 9 April 2023.</ref>

Improved batteries

Advances in lithium-ion batteries, driven at first by the personal-use electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable EVs to travel nearly as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours (see recharging time), and now last longer than the typical vehicle (see lifespan). The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium-ion batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.<ref>Korosec, Kirsten. "Panasonic boosts energy density, trims cobalt in new 2170 battery cell for Tesla" Archived 29 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, July 30, 2020</ref><ref>"Daimler deepens CATL alliance to build long-range, fast-charging EV batteries" Archived 23 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Reuters, August 5, 2020; and "Porsche: The perfect cell" Archived 25 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Automotive World, August 28, 2020</ref> Research is also underway to improve battery reuse and recycling, which would further reduce the environmental impact of batteries.<ref>Baum, Zachary J.; Bird, Robert; Yu, Xiang; Ma, Jia (14 October 2022). "Correction to "Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling─Overview of Techniques and Trends"". ACS Energy Letters. 7 (10): 3268–3269. doi:10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01888. ISSN 2380-8195.</ref><ref>Martinez-Laserna, E.; Gandiaga, I.; Sarasketa-Zabala, E.; Badeda, J.; Stroe, D. -I.; Swierczynski, M.; Goikoetxea, A. (1 October 2018). "Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 93: 701–718. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.035. ISSN 1364-0321. S2CID 115675123.</ref>

Many companies and researchers are also working on newer battery technologies, including solid state batteries<ref>Patel, Prachi. "Ion Storage Systems Says Its Ceramic Electrolyte Could Be a Gamechanger for Solid-State Batteries" Archived 29 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, IEEE.org, February 21, 2020</ref> and alternate technologies.<ref>Lambert, Fred. "Tesla researchers show path to next-gen battery cell with breakthrough energy density" Archived 24 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Electrek, August 12, 2020</ref>

Battery management and intermediate storage

Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, using supercapacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy.<ref>Horn, Michael; MacLeod, Jennifer; Liu, Meinan; Webb, Jeremy; Motta, Nunzio (March 2019). "Supercapacitors: A new source of power for electric cars?" (PDF). Economic Analysis and Policy. 61: 93–103. doi:10.1016/j.eap.2018.08.003. S2CID 187458469.</ref> The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring, it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.^{[citation needed]}

Electric trucks

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Hydrogen trains

Particularly in Europe, fuel-cell electric trains are gaining in popularity to replace diesel-electric units. In Germany, several Länder have ordered Alstom Coradia iLINT trainsets, in service since 2018,<ref name="France-Presse">"Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 17 September 2018. Archived from the original on 17 September 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.</ref> with France also planning to order trainsets.<ref>"L'Occitanie, première région à commander des trains à hydrogène à Alstom". France 3 Occitanie (in français). Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.</ref> The United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Canada<ref name="France-Presse" /> and Mexico<ref>"La constructora Alstom quiere ir por el 'tramo ecológico' del Tren Maya". El Financiero (in español). Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.</ref> are equally interested. In France, the SNCF plans to replace all its remaining diesel-electric trains with hydrogen trains by 2035.<ref>"SNCF : Pépy envisage la fin des trains diesel et l'arrivée de l'hydrogène en 2035". La Tribune (in français). Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.</ref> In the United Kingdom, Alstom announced in 2018 their plan to retrofit British Rail Class 321 trainsets with fuel cells.<ref>"SNCF : Pépy envisage la fin des trains diesel et l'arrivée de l'hydrogène en 2035". La Tribune (in français). Archived from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 29 November 2018.</ref>

Higher voltage outlets in garages of newly built homes

In New Mexico the government is looking to pass legislation mandating electrical receptacles that are higher voltage to be installed in garages of newly built homes.<ref>"New Mexico law seeks solar on every roof, and an EV charger in every garage". pv magazine USA. 25 January 2023.</ref> The NEMA 14-50 outlets provide 240 volts and 50 Amps for a total of 12.5 Kilowatts for level 2 charging of electric vehicles.<ref>"Buy Nema 14–50 EV Charger – Lectron". Lectron EV.</ref><ref>"NeoCharge".</ref> Level 2 charging can add up to 30 miles of range per hour of charging compared to up to 4 miles of range per hour for level 1 charging from 120 volt outlets.

Bidirectional charging

General Motors (GM) is adding a capability called V2H, or bidirectional charging, to allow its new electric vehicles to send power from their batteries to the owner's home. GM will start with 2024 models, including the Silverado and Blazer EVs, and promises to continue the feature through to model year 2026. This could be helpful to the owner during unexpected power grid outages because an electric vehicle is a giant battery on wheels.<ref name=bidirectional>General Motors will add bidirectional charging to its Ultium-based EVs by Jonathan M. Gitlin, on Ars Technica, 8/8/2023.</ref>

Infrastructure management

With the increase in number of electric vehicles, it is necessary to create an appropriate number of charging stations to supply the increasing demand,<ref>Barbecho Bautista, Pablo; Lemus Cárdenas, Leticia; Urquiza Aguiar, Luis; Aguilar Igartua, Mónica (2019). "A traffic-aware electric vehicle charging management system for smart cities". Vehicular Communications. 20: 100188. doi:10.1016/j.vehcom.2019.100188. hdl:2117/172770. S2CID 204080912.</ref> and a proper management system that coordinates the charging turn of each vehicle to avoid having some charging stations overloaded with vehicles and others empty.<ref>Fernandez Pallarés, Victor; Cebollada, Juan Carlos Guerri; Martínez, Alicia Roca (2019). "Interoperability network model for traffic forecast and full electric vehicles power supply management within the smart city". Ad Hoc Networks. 93: 101929. doi:10.1016/j.adhoc.2019.101929. S2CID 196184613.</ref>

Stabilization of the grid

Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) charger where energy can flow back into the grid if needed

Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, battery-powered vehicles could reduce the need for dispatchable generation by feeding electricity into the grid from their batteries during periods of high demand and low supply (such as just after sunset) while doing most of their charging at night or midday, when there is unused generating capacity.<ref name="Liasi">Liasi, Sahand Ghaseminejad; Golkar, Masoud Aliakbar (2017). "Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response". 2017 Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE). pp. 1272–1277. doi:10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237. ISBN 978-1-5090-5963-8. S2CID 22071272.</ref><ref>"It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets". www.schroders.com. Retrieved 12 April 2023. Beyond grid stabilisation benefits, smart charging of EVs, using differentiated electricity tariffs in off-peak hours, may also mitigate the pressure on electricity demand. That's because vehicles can be charged during the day, when demand is lower and renewables generation is available.</ref> This vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind reducing the life of their batteries, by being drained by the power company during peak demand. Electric vehicle parking lots can provide demand response.<ref name="Shafie-khah Heydarian-Forushani 2016">Shafie-khah, Miadreza; Heydarian-Forushani, Ehsan; Osorio, Gerardo J.; Gil, Fabio A. S.; Aghaei, Jamshid; Barani, Mostafa; Catalao, Joao P. S. (November 2016). "Optimal Behavior of Electric Vehicle Parking Lots as Demand Response Aggregation Agents". IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. 7 (6): 2654–2665. doi:10.1109/TSG.2015.2496796. ISSN 1949-3053. S2CID 715959.</ref>

Current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as wind and solar. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.<ref>"It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets". www.schroders.com. Retrieved 12 April 2023. Intermittency from solar or wind technologies can put creating voltage and frequency variations. Batteries can charge and discharge to stabilise the grid in such instances. The batteries of electric vehicles, e-buses or electric two-wheelers, while connected to the grid, could therefore play a role in protecting a grid's stability.</ref>

Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.<ref>"Engines and Gas Turbines | Claverton Group". Claverton-energy.com. 18 November 2008. Archived from the original on 6 September 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2009.</ref><ref>National Grid's use of Emergency. Diesel Standby Generator's in dealing with grid intermittency and variability. Potential Contribution in assisting renewables Archived 17 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, David Andrews, Senior Technical Consultant, Biwater Energy, A talk originally given by as the Energy Manager at Wessex Water at an Open University Conference on Intermittency, 24 January 2006</ref>

Repair Shops

The infrastructure for vehicle repairs after accidents is a concern for insurers and mechanics due to safety requirements.<ref>Nick Carey; Josie Kao and Louise Heavens. (5 July 2023). "EV batteries remain major challenge for insurers – UK's Thatcham". Reuters website Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref> Batteries and other components must be carefully evaluated rather than being totally written off by insurers.<ref>Nick Carey. (27 June 2023). "UK firm Metis touts battery sensor that could ease EV scrappage problem". Reuters website Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref>

Notes

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