Public participation
Public participation, also known as citizen participation or patient and public involvement, is the inclusion of the public in the activities of any organization or project. Public participation is similar to but more inclusive than stakeholder engagement.
Generally public participation seeks and facilitates the involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a decision. This can be in relation to individuals, governments, institutions, companies or any other entities that affect public interests. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a decision have a right to be involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies that the public's contribution will influence the decision.<ref name="test">"IAP2 Core Values for the Practice of Public Participation". Iap2.org. Retrieved 2012-08-06.</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>"Principles of Public Participation". Co-intelligence.org. 2008-05-23. Retrieved 2012-08-06.</ref> Public participation may be regarded as a form of empowerment and as vital part of democratic governance.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> In the context of knowledge management the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by some in the facilitator of collective intelligence and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the participation of the whole community or society.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
Public participation is part of "people centred" or "human centric" principles, which have emerged in Western culture over the last thirty years, and has had some bearings of education, business, public policy and international relief and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the humanist movements. Public participation may be advanced as part of a "people first" paradigm shift. In this respect public participation may challenge the concept that "big is better" and the logic of centralized hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of "more heads are better than one" and arguing that public participation can sustain productive and durable change.<ref name="autogenerated4">[1] Archived July 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine</ref>
Some legal and other frameworks have developed a human rights approach to public participation. For example, the right to public participation in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation.<ref>African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation Archived May 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine</ref> Similarly major environmental and sustainability mechanisms have enshrined a right to public participation, such as the Rio Declaration.<ref>Shelton, Dinah. "A rights-based approach to public participation and local management of natural resources." 3rd IGES International Workshop on Forest Conservation Strategies for the Asia and Pacific Region. 1999.</ref>
By field
Art
Budgeting
Participatory budgeting is a process of democratic deliberation and decision-making, in which ordinary city residents decide how to allocate part of a municipal or public budget. Participatory budgeting is usually characterized by several basic design features: identification of spending priorities by community members, election of budget delegates to represent different communities, facilitation and technical assistance by public employees, local and higher level assemblies to deliberate and vote on spending priorities, and the implementation of local direct-impact community projects. Participatory budgeting may be used by towns and cities around the world, and has been widely publicised in Porto Alegre, Brazil, were the first full participatory budgeting process was developed starting in 1989.
Development
In economic development theory, there is a school of participatory development. The desire to increase public participation in humanitarian aid and development has led to the establishment of a numerous context-specific, formal methodologies, matrices, pedagogies and ad hoc approaches. These include conscientization and praxis; Participatory action research (PAR), rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA); appreciation influence control analysis (AIC); "open space" approaches; Objectives Oriented Project Planning (ZOPP); vulnerability analysis and capacity analysis.<ref name=autogenerated4 />
Environment and sustainable development
In recent years public participation has become to be seen as a vital part of addressing environmental problems and bringing about sustainable development. In this context the limits of solely relying on technocratic bureaucratic monopoly of decision making, and it is argued that public participation allows governments to adopt policies and enact laws that are relevant to communities and take into account their needs.<ref name="autogenerated2" />
Public participation is recognised as an environmental principle, see Environmental Principles and Policies, and has been enshrined in the Rio Declaration.
Heritage
Around the globe experts work closely with local communities. Local communities are crucial stakeholders for heritage.<ref>ICCROM. People-Centred Approaches to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Living Heritage. 2015
https://www.iccrom.org/sites/default/files/PCA_Annexe-2.pdf</ref>
Consultation with local communities is acknowledged formally in cultural management processes.<ref>"Engaging local communities in stewardship of World Heritage: a methodology based on the COMPACT experience". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2020-12-08.</ref> They are necessary for defining the significance of a cultural place/site, otherwise you run the risk to oversee many values, focusing on “experts’” views.<ref>Clark, Kate. “Preserving What Matters. Value-Led Planning for Cultural Heritage Sites.” Conservation, The GCI Newsletter 16, no. 3 (2001): 5-12.
[2]</ref> This has been the case in heritage management until the end of the 20th century. A paradigm shift started with the Burra Charter by ICOMOS Australia in 1979<ref>"Charters". australia.icomos.org. Retrieved 2020-12-08.</ref> and was later developed by the work of the GCI around 2000.<ref>Avrami, Erica C., Randall Mason, and Marta De la Torre. 2000. Values and Heritage Conservation: Research Report. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Conservation Institute.
http://hdl.handle.net/10020/gci_pub/values_heritage_research_report</ref><ref>De la Torre, Marta, ed. 2002. Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage: Research Report. Los Angeles, CA: Getty Conservation Institute.
[3]</ref> Today, so called “value-led conservation” is at the base of heritage management for WH sites: establishing stakeholders and associated values is a fundamental step in creating a Management Plan for such sites.
The concept of stakeholders has widened to include local communities.
Various levels of local government, research institutions, enterprises, charitable organisations, and communities are all important parties. Activities such as knowledge exchange, education, consultation, exhibitions, academic events, publicity campaigns, among others are all effective means for local participation.
For instance, local charities in Homs, Syria have been undertaking several projects with local communities to protect their heritage.<ref>Azzouz, Ammar (2019-02-11). "A tale of a Syrian city at war". City. 23 (1): 107–122. Bibcode:2019City...23..107A. doi:10.1080/13604813.2019.1575605. ISSN 1360-4813. S2CID 150357708.</ref>
A conservation programme in Dangeil, Sudan, has used social and economic relationship with the community to make the project sustainable over the long term.<ref>Guiducci, Francesca; Sweek, Tracey; Anderson, Julie (2020-08-31). "Finding Sustainability in the Desert: Conservation of the Archaeological Site of Dangeil, Sudan, and Its Associated Collections". Studies in Conservation. 65 (sup1): P113–P118. doi:10.1080/00393630.2020.1761183. ISSN 0039-3630. S2CID 219435237.</ref>
In Australia, Indigenous communities increasingly have stewardship of conservation and management programs to care for, monitor and maintain their cultural heritage places and landscapes, particularly those containing rock art.<ref>Marshall, Melissa; May, Kadeem; Dann, Robin; Nulgit, Lloyd (2020-08-31). "Indigenous Stewardship of Decolonised Rock Art Conservation Processes in Australia". Studies in Conservation. 65 (sup1): P205–P212. doi:10.1080/00393630.2020.1778264. ISSN 0039-3630. S2CID 224805280.</ref>
Media
Public policy
In some countries public participation has become a central principle of public policy making within democratic bodies, policies are rendered legitimate when citizens have the opportunity to influence the politicians and parties involved.<ref name=":13">Fung, Archon (2015-02-25). "Putting the Public Back into Governance: The Challenges of Citizen Participation and Its Future". Public Administration Review. 75 (4): 513–522. doi:10.1111/puar.12361. ISSN 0033-3352.</ref> In the UK and Canada it has been observed that all levels of government have started to build citizen and stakeholder engagement into their policy-making processes. Situating citizens as active actors in policy-making can work to offset government failures by allowing for reform that will better emulate the needs of citizens.<ref name=":03">Speer, Johanna (December 2012). "Participatory Governance Reform: A Good Strategy for Increasing Government Responsiveness and Improving Public Services?". World Development. 40 (12): 2379–2398. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.034. ISSN 0305-750X.</ref> By incorporating citizens, policies will reflect everyday needs and realities, and not the machinations of politicians and political parties.<ref name=":22">Donaghy, Maureen M. (2013-03-05). Civil Society and Participatory Governance. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203098011. ISBN 978-0-203-09801-1.</ref> This may involve large-scale consultations, focus group research, online discussion forums, or deliberative citizens' juries. There are many different public participation mechanisms, although these often share common features (for a list over 100, and a typology of mechanisms, see Rowe and Frewer, 2005).<ref>Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2005) A typology of public engagement mechanisms, Science, Technology, & Human Values, 30 (2), 251-290.</ref>
Public participation is viewed as a tool, intended to inform planning, organising or funding of activities. Public participation may also be used to measure attainable objectives, evaluate impact, and identify lessons for future practice.<ref>[4] Archived September 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine</ref> In Brazil's housing councils, mandated in 2005, citizen engagement in policy drafting increased effectiveness and responsiveness of government public service delivery.<ref name=":22"/> All modern constitutions and fundamental laws contain and declare the concept and principle of popular sovereignty, which essentially means that the people are the ultimate source of public power or government authority. The concept of popular sovereignty holds simply that in a society organized for political action, the will of the people as a whole is the only right standard of political action. It can be regarded as an important element in the system of the checks and balances, and representative democracy. Therefore, the people are implicitly entitled even to directly participate in the process of public policy and law making.<ref>Vértesy, László (2017-01-10). "The Public Participation in the Drafting of Legislation in Hungary". Central European Public Administration Review. 14 (4). doi:10.17573/ipar.2016.4.06. ISSN 2591-2259.</ref>
In the United States public participation in administrative rulemaking refers to the process by which proposed rules are subject to public comment for a specified period of time. Public participation is typically mandatory for rules promulgated by executive agencies of the US government. Statutes or agency policies may mandate public hearings during this period.<ref name="Ali Assari">Assari, Ali; T.M. Mahesh (December 2011). "Comparative Sustainability of Bazaar in Iranian Traditional Cities: Case Studies in Isfahan and Tabriz" (PDF). International Journal on Technical and Physical Problems of Engineering (IJTPE). 3 (9): 18–24. Retrieved 6 January 2013.</ref>
Science
Other
- Participatory culture
- Participatory design
- Participatory economics
- Participatory ergonomics
- Participatory evaluation
- Participatory GIS
- Public participation geographic information system
- Participatory justice
- Participatory management
- Participatory modeling
- Participatory 3D modelling
- Participatory poverty assessment
- Participatory technology development
- Participatory organization
- Participatory sensing
- Public participation in patent examination
Public trust
In recent years loss of public trust in authorities and politicians has become a widespread concern in many democratic societies.The relationship between citizens and local governments has weakened over the past two decades due to shortcomings in public service delivery.<ref name=":03"/> Public participation is a regarded as one potential solution to the crisis in public trust and governance, particularly in the UK, Europe, and other democracies. Establishing direct citizen participation can increase governance's effectiveness, legitimacy, and social justice.<ref name=":13"/> The idea is that public should be involved more fully in the policy process in that authorities seek public views and participation, instead of treating the public as simply passive recipients of policy decisions.
The underlying assumption by political theorists, social commentators, and even politicians is that public participation increase public trust in authorities, improving citizen political efficacy, enhancing democratic ideals and even improving the quality of policy decisions. However, the assumed benefits of public participation in restoring public trust are yet to be confirmed.<ref>Rowe, G. and Frewer, L.J. (2000) Public participation methods: A framework for evaluation, Science, Technology, & Human Values, 25 (1), 3-29.</ref><ref>Rowe, G. and Gammack, J.G. (2004) Promise and perils of electronic public engagement, Science and Public Policy, 31 (1), 39-54.</ref><ref>"Public participation (science in society)". Ifr.ac.uk. Retrieved 2012-08-06.</ref> Citizen participation is only sustained if citizens support it and if their involvement is actively supported by the governing body.
Accountability and transparency
Public participation may also be viewed as accountability enhancing. The argument being that public participation can be a means for the participating communities to hold public authorities accountable for implementation.<ref name=autogenerated2>Nazrul Islam, Nazrul Isable Martinez and Wang Xi, "Environmental Law in Developing Countries: Selected Issues, IUCN, 2002, pg.7</ref> In the United Kingdom citizens are used to ensure the fair and humane detention of prisoners. Volunteers comprise the Independent Monitoring Board that reports on the fair and humane detention of prisoners and detainees.<ref>Roffee, James A. (2017-01-01). "Accountability and Oversight of State Functions: Use of Volunteers to Monitor Equality and Diversity in Prisons in England and Wales". SAGE Open. 7 (1): 2158244017690792. doi:10.1177/2158244017690792. ISSN 2158-2440.</ref>
Many community organizations are composed of affluent middle-class citizens with the privilege and the time to participate.<ref name=":13"/> It is well documented that low-income citizens face difficulty organizing themselves and engaging in public issues.<ref>"Wampler, Brian, and Stephanie McNulty. "Does participatory governance matter." Exploring the (2011). - Google Search". www.google.com. Retrieved 2021-12-04.</ref> Obstacles like: finding affordable childcare, getting time off of work, and access to education in public matters exacerbate the lack of participation by low-income citizens.<ref name=":13" /> To foster greater participation of all social groups, vanguard privileged classes work to bring in low-income citizens through collaboration. The organizations establish an incentive for participation through accessible language and friendly environments.<ref>Musso, Juliet; Weare, Christopher; Bryer, Thomas; Cooper, Terry L. (January 2011). "Toward "Strong Democracy" in Global Cities? Social Capital Building, Theory-Driven Reform, and the Los Angeles Neighborhood Council Experience". Public Administration Review. 71 (1): 102–111. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2010.02311.x. ISSN 0033-3352.</ref> This allows for an atmosphere of consensus between middle and lower-income citizens.
Critical interpretations
The concept and practice of public participation has been critiqued, often using Foucauldian analytical frameworks.<ref>Huxley, Margo (June 2000). "The Limits to Communicative Planning". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 19 (4): 369–377. doi:10.1177/0739456X0001900406. ISSN 0739-456X. S2CID 143756651.</ref> Such accounts detail how participation can be a method of capturing community activity into regimes of power and control although it has also been noted that capture and empowerment can co-exist.
In 1990 practitioners established the International Association for Public Practitioners in order to respond to the increasing interest in the practice, and in turn established the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2).<ref>"International Association for Public Participation". www.iap2.org. Retrieved 2015-06-04.</ref> The practice is well established globally and the International Association of Public Participation now has affiliate organizations across the globe.<ref>"International Association for Public Participation - Affiliates". www.iap2.org. Retrieved 2015-06-04.</ref>
Public participation in environmental governance
With growing complexities of the environmental issues, public participation has come to the fore in academic analysis concerning the contemporary debates about environmental governance.
There have emerged a number of arguments in favor of a more participatory approach, which stress that public participation is a crucial element in environmental governance that contributes to better decision making. It is recognised that environmental problems cannot be solved by government alone.<ref>Pring, G. and Noé, S.Y. (2002) 'The Emerging International Law of Public Participation Affecting Global Mining, Energy, and Resource Development' in Zillman, D.M., Lucas, A. and Pring, G.(eds) Human Rights in Natural Resource Development: Public Participation in the Sustainable Development of Mining and Energy Resources, Oxford University Press, Oxford, P 76.</ref> Participation in environmental decision-making effectively links the public to environmental governance. By involving the public, who are at the root of both causes and solutions of environmental problems, in environmental discussions, transparency and accountability are more likely to be achieved, thus secures the democratic legitimacy of decision-making that good environmental governance depends on.<ref name="two">Bulkeley, H. and Mol, A.P.J. (2003), 'Participation and Environmental Governance: Consensus, Ambivalence and Debate', Environmental Values 12 (2): 143–54.</ref><ref>"Ramos, G. Public participation in Environmental Governance". Globalnation.inquirer.net. 2008-07-21. Retrieved 2012-08-06.</ref> Arguably, a strong public participation in environmental governance could increase the commitment among stockholders, which strengthens the compliance and enforcement of environmental laws. GIS can provide a valuable tool for such work (see GIS and environmental governance). In addition, some opponents argue that the right to participate in environmental decision-making is a procedural right that "can be seen as part of the fundamental right to environmental protection".<ref name="four">Du Plessis, A. (2008), 'Public Participation, Good Environmental Governance and Fulfillment of Environmental Rights', Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 11(2): 170-201.(4)</ref> From this ethical perspective, environmental governance is expected to operate within a framework coinciding the "constitutional principle of fairness (inclusive of equality)", which inevitably requires the fulfillment of "environmental rights" and ultimately calls for the engagement of public.<ref name="four" /> Further, in the context of considerable scientific uncertainties surrounding environmental issues, public participation helps to counter such uncertainties and bridges the gap between scientifically-defined environmental problems and the experiences and values of stakeholders.<ref name="two" /><ref>Fischer, F. (2000) Citizens, Experts and the Environment, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, p.222.</ref> Through joint effort of the government and scientists in collaboration with the public, better governance of environment is expected to be achieved by making the most appropriate decision possible.
Although broad agreements exist, the notion of public participation in environmental decision-making has been subject to a sustained critique concerning the real outcome of participatory environmental governance. Critics argue that public participation tends to focus on reaching a consensus between actors who share the same values and seek the same outcomes. However, the uncertain nature of many of the environmental issues would undermine the validity of public participation, given that in many cases the actors come to the table of discussion hold very different perceptions of the problem and solution which are unlikely to be welded into a consensus due to the incommensurability of different positions.<ref>Pellizzoni, L. (2003): 'Uncertainty and Participatory Democracy', Environmental Values 12(2): 195-224.</ref> This may run the risk of expert bias, which generates further exclusion as those who are antagonistic to the consensus would be marginalised in the environmental decision-making process, which violates the assumed advantage of participatory approach to produce democratic environmental decisions. This raises the further question of whether consensus should be the measure of a successful outcome of participation.<ref>Owens, S. (2000). 'Engaging the public: information and deliberation in environmental policy', Environment and Planning A, 32: 1141–8.</ref> As Davies suggests, participative democracy could not guarantee the substantive environmental benefits 'if there are competing views of what the environment should be like and what it is valuable for'.<ref>Davies, A. (2001). 'What silence knows – planning, public participation and environmental values', Environmental Values, 10: 77–102.</ref> Consequently, who should be involved at what points in the process of environmental decision-making and what is the goal of this kind of participation become central to the debates on public participation as a key issue in environmental governance.<ref name="two" />
Citizen science
Citizen science is a coined term commonly used to describe the participation of non-scientists in scientific research.
Greater inclusion of non-professional scientists in policy research is important.<ref>Richardson, Liz. "Engaging the Public in Policy Research: Are Community Researchers the Answer?" Politics and Governance, vol. 2, no. 1, 2014, pp. 32–44.</ref> It is academia's responsibly to facilitate the "democratization of policy research". This has several benefits: having citizens involved in not just the contribution of data, but also the framing and development of research itself.
The key to success in applying citizen science to policy development is data which is "suitable, robust, and of a known quality for evidence-based policy making".<ref name=":0" /> Barriers to applying citizen science to policy development include a lack of suitability between the data collected and the policy in question and skepticism regarding the data collected by non-experts.<ref name=":0">Chapman, Colin and Crona Hodges. "Can Citizen Science Seriously Contribute to Policy Development?: A Decision Maker's View." Analyzing the Role of Citizens Science in Modern Research. IGI Global, 2017. 246-261.</ref>
Efficacy of Public Participation
Why is the public motivated to participate in policy making in the first place? A study from Christopher M. Weible<ref>Weible, Christopher (2007). "An Advocacy Coalition Framework Approach to Stakeholder Analysis: Understanding the Political Context of California Marine Protected Area Policy". Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. 17 (1): 95–117. doi:10.1093/jopart/muj015.</ref> argues in his stakeholder example that individuals are motivated by their belief systems. More specifically, people are "motivated to convert their beliefs into policy" (Weible, 2007). Weible digresses his statements with a "three-tier hierarchical belief system" (Weible, 2007). The first tier is unchanging fundamental beliefs that a person holds. The middle tier is compose of core beliefs regarding policy and is more "pliable than deep core beliefs" (Weible, 2007), which is found in tier one. The final tier is merely secondary beliefs.
As shown in Christopher Weible's study, it is obvious that the public has an intrinsic desire to participate in policy making to some degree. That being said, how effective is public participation in the sphere of policy making? A study by Milena I. Neshkova and Hai Guo<ref>Neshkova, Milena (2012). "Public Participation and Organizational Performance: Evidence from State Agencies". Oxford Journals. 22 (2): 267–288.</ref> illuminates the effectiveness of public participation by using analyzing data from U.S. state transportation agencies. The way these authors measured this is by observing the "effect of public participation on organizational performance" (Neshkova and Guo, 2012). The organizational performance in this instance is U.S. state transportation agencies. The researchers concluded that "public participation is, in fact, associated with enhanced organizational performance" (Neshkova and Guo, 2012). Bureaucratic agencies in general become more effective when including the public in their decision making. What these two studies show is that one the public has not only an interest in policy making but is driven by their beliefs. Lastly, public participation is indeed an effective tool when lawmakers or bureaucratic agencies are making policies or laws.
Right to public participation
Reporting and evaluating public participation and involvement
Reporting and evaluating methods of public participation and involvement in across multiple disciplines and languages has been an ongoing challenge, making it difficult to assess effectiveness.<ref>Nunn, Jack S.; Tiller, Jane; Fransquet, Peter; Lacaze, Paul (2019). "Public Involvement in Global Genomics Research: A Scoping Review". Frontiers in Public Health. 7: 79. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2019.00079. ISSN 2296-2565. PMC 6467093. PMID 31024880.</ref><ref>Nunn, Jack S.; Shafee, Thomas; Chang, Steven; Stephens, Richard; Elliott, Jim; Oliver, Sandy; John, Denny; Smith, Maureen; Orr, Neil; Preston, Jennifer; Borthwick, Josephine; van Vlijmen, Thijs; Ansell, James; Houyez, Francois; de Sousa, Maria Sharmila Alina (2022-07-19). "Standardised data on initiatives—STARDIT: Beta version". Research Involvement and Engagement. 8 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s40900-022-00363-9. ISSN 2056-7529. PMC 9294764. PMID 35854364.</ref> Some novel tools for reporting involvement, engagement and participation across disciplines using standardised terminology have been developed. For example, a beta version of Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) was published in 2022, using Wikidata to encourage consistent terminology across languages to describe the tasks of involvement, the methods, communication modes and any impacts or outcomes from involvement.<ref>Nunn, Jack S.; Shafee, Thomas; Chang, Steven; Stephens, Richard; Elliott, Jim; Oliver, Sandy; John, Denny; Smith, Maureen; Orr, Neil; Preston, Jennifer; Borthwick, Josephine; van Vlijmen, Thijs; Ansell, James; Houyez, Francois; de Sousa, Maria Sharmila Alina (2022-07-19). "Standardised data on initiatives—STARDIT: Beta version". Research Involvement and Engagement. 8 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s40900-022-00363-9. ISSN 2056-7529. PMC 9294764. PMID 35854364.</ref><ref>"STARDIT". Science For All. Retrieved 2023-03-15.</ref> STARDIT has already been used by a number of organisations to report initiatives, including Cochrane, Australian Genomics 'Guidelines For Community Involvement In Genomics Research',<ref name=GCI_1>"Guidelines for Community Involvement in Genomics Research" (PDF). Australian Genomics. April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2023.</ref> NIHR funded research projects, La Trobe University's Academic and Research Collaborative in Health (ARCH),<ref>"About the ARCH, Research, Academic and Research Collaborative in Health (ARCH), La Trobe University". 2023-07-18. Archived from the original on 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2023-07-18.</ref> citizen science projects and the Wiki Journals.<ref>Nunn, Jack S.; Shafee, Thomas; Chang, Steven; Stephens, Richard; Elliott, Jim; Oliver, Sandy; John, Denny; Smith, Maureen; Orr, Neil; Preston, Jennifer; Borthwick, Josephine; van Vlijmen, Thijs; Ansell, James; Houyez, Francois; de Sousa, Maria Sharmila Alina (2022-07-19). "Standardised data on initiatives—STARDIT: Beta version". Research Involvement and Engagement. 8 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s40900-022-00363-9. ISSN 2056-7529. PMC 9294764. PMID 35854364.</ref><ref>"STARDIT". Science For All. Retrieved 2023-03-15.</ref>
See also
- Citizens' assembly
- Citizen science
- Counter-mapping
- Deliberative democracy
- Involve (think tank)
- Neighborhood planning
- Participation (decision making)
- Participatory economics
- GIS and environmental governance
- Participatory culture
- Participatory justice
- Progress in Community Health Partnerships
- Strategic lawsuit against public participation
- Visual preference survey
References
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