Applications of nanotechnology

The applications of nanotechnology, commonly incorporate industrial, medicinal, and energy uses. These include more durable construction materials, therapeutic drug delivery, and higher density hydrogen fuel cells that are environmentally friendly. Being that nanoparticles and nanodevices are highly versatile through modification of their physiochemical properties, they have found uses in nanoscale electronics, cancer treatments, vaccines, hydrogen fuel cells, and nanographene batteries.<ref name=":0">"Nanotechnology - 2nd Edition". www.elsevier.com. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref>

Nanotechnology's use of smaller sized materials allows for adjustment of molecules and substances at the nanoscale level, which can further enhance the mechanical properties of materials or grant access to less physically accessible areas of the body.<ref name=":0"/><ref>"Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications - 1st Edition". www.elsevier.com. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref><ref name="sciencedirect.com">"Nanoelectronics - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref>

Industrial applications

Potential applications of carbon nanotubes

Nanotubes can help with cancer treatment. They have been shown to be effective tumor killers in those with kidney or breast cancer.<ref name=":11">Burke, Andrew; Ding, Xuanfeng; Singh, Ravi; Kraft, Robert A.; Levi-Polyachenko, Nicole; Rylander, Marissa Nichole; Szot, Chris; Buchanan, Cara; Whitney, Jon; Fisher, Jessica; Hatcher, Heather C. (2009-08-04). "Long-term survival following a single treatment of kidney tumors with multiwalled carbon nanotubes and near-infrared radiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (31): 12897–12902. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10612897B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0905195106. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 2722274. PMID 19620717.</ref><ref>Tajabadi, Mahdis (2019-06-28). "Application of Carbon Nanotubes in Breast Cancer Therapy". Drug Research. doi:10.1055/a-0945-1469. ISSN 2194-9387. PMID 31252436. S2CID 195765151.</ref> Multi-walled nanotubes are injected into a tumor and treated with a special type of laser that generates near-infrared radiation for around half a minute. These nanotubes vibrate in response to the laser, and heat is generated. When the tumor has been heated enough, the tumor cells begin to die. Processes like this one have been able to shrink kidney tumors by up to four-fifths.<ref name=":11" />

Ultrablack materials, made up of “forests” of carbon nanotubes, are important in space, where there is more light than is convenient to work with. Ultrablack material can be applied to camera and telescope systems to decrease the amount of light and allow for more detailed images to be captured.<ref>"MIT engineers develop "blackest black" material to date". MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 13 September 2019. Retrieved 2021-04-10.</ref>

Nanotubes show promise in treating cardiovascular disease. They could play an important role in blood vessel cleanup. Theoretically, nanotubes with SHP1i molecules attached to them would signal macrophages to clean up plaque in blood vessels without destroying any healthy tissue. Researchers have tested this type of modified nanotube in mice with high amounts of plaque buildup; the mice that received the nanotube treatment showed statistically significant reductions in plaque buildup compared to the mice in the placebo group.<ref>merickso@stanford.edu, Mandy Erickson Mandy Erickson is a science writer in the Office of Communications Email her at (29 July 2019). "Nanotherapy reduces plaque buildup in mouse arteries". News Center. Retrieved 2021-04-10.</ref> Further research is needed for this treatment to be given to humans.

Nanotubes may be used in body armor for future soldiers. This type of armor would be very strong and highly effective at shielding soldiers’ bodies from projectiles and electromagnetic radiation. It is also possible that the nanotubes in the armor could play a role in keeping an eye on soldiers’ conditions.<ref>"Carbon nanotubes and the pursuit of the ultimate body armor". Nanowerk. Retrieved 2021-04-10.</ref>

Construction

Nanotechnology's ability to observe and control the material world at a nanoscopic level can offer great potential for construction development. Nanotechnology can help improve the strength and durability of construction materials, including cement, steel, wood, and glass.<ref>"eLCOSH : Nanotechnology and Construction". www.elcosh.org. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref>

By applying nanotechnology, materials can gain a range of new properties. The discovery of a highly ordered crystal nanostructure of amorphous C-S-H gel and the application of photocatalyst and coating technology result in a new generation of materials with properties like water resistance, self-cleaning property, wear resistance, and corrosion protection.<ref name=":8">"How Nanotechnology Can Change the Concrete World Successfully mimicking nature's bottom-up construction processes is one of the most promising directions". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref> Among the new nanoengineered polymers, there are highly efficient superplasticizers for concrete and high-strength fibers with exceptional energy absorbing capacity.<ref name=":8" />

Experts believe that nanotechnology remains in its exploration stage and has potential in improving conventional materials such as steel.<ref name=":8" /> Understanding the composite nanostructures of such materials and exploring nanomaterials' different applications may lead to the development of new materials with expanded properties, such as electrical conductivity as well as temperature-, moisture- and stress-sensing abilities.<ref name=":8" />

Due to the complexity of the equipment, nanomaterials have high cost compared to conventional materials, meaning they are not likely to feature high-volume building materials.<ref name=":9">Mohan, Prem (2011-09-17). "CIVIL ENGINEERING SEMINAR TOPICS: SIGNIFICANCE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING". CIVIL ENGINEERING SEMINAR TOPICS. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref> In special cases, nanotechnology can help reduce costs for complicated problems. But in most cases, the traditional method for construction remains more cost-efficient.<ref name=":9" /> With the improvement of manufacturing technologies, the costs of applying nanotechnology into construction have been decreasing over time and are expected to decrease more.<ref name=":9" />

Nanoelectronics

Nanoelectronics refers to the application of nanotechnology on electronic components. Nanoelectronics aims to improve the performance of electronic devices on displays and power consumption while shrinking them.<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> Therefore, nanoelectronics can help reach the goal set up in Moore's law, which predicts the continued trend of scaling down in the size of integrated circuits.

Nanoelectronics is a multidisciplinary area composed of quantum physics, device analysis, system integration, and circuit analysis.<ref name=":10">Raza, Hassan (2019-11-26). Nanoelectronics Fundamentals: Materials, Devices and Systems. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-32573-2.</ref> Since de Broglie wavelength in the semiconductors may be on the order of 100 nm, the quantum effect at this length scale becomes essential.<ref name=":10" /> The different device physics and novel quantum effects of electrons can lead to exciting applications.<ref name=":10" />

Health applications

Nanobiotechnology

The terms nanobiotechnology and bionanotechnology refer to the combination of ideas, techniques, and sciences of biology and nanotechnology. More specifically, nanobiotechnology refers to the application of nanoscale objects for biotechnology while bionanotechnology refers to the use of biological components in nanotechnology.<ref name=":0"/>

The most prominent intersection of nanotechnology and biology is in the field of nanomedicine, where the use of nanoparticles and nanodevices has many clinical applications in delivering therapeutic drugs, monitoring health conditions, and diagnosing diseases.<ref name=":3">Pelaz, Beatriz; Alexiou, Christoph; Alvarez-Puebla, Ramon A.; Alves, Frauke; Andrews, Anne M.; Ashraf, Sumaira; Balogh, Lajos P.; Ballerini, Laura; Bestetti, Alessandra; Brendel, Cornelia; Bosi, Susanna (2017-03-28). "Diverse Applications of Nanomedicine". ACS Nano. 11 (3): 2313–2381. doi:10.1021/acsnano.6b06040. ISSN 1936-086X. PMC 5371978. PMID 28290206.</ref> Being that much of the biological processes in the human body occur at the cellular level, the small size of nanomaterials allows for them to be used as tools that can easily circulate within the body and directly interact with intercellular and even intracellular environments. In addition, nanomaterials can have physiochemical properties that differ from their bulk form due to their size,<ref>Soares, Sara; Sousa, João; Pais, Alberto; Vitorino, Carla (2018). "Nanomedicine: Principles, Properties, and Regulatory Issues". Frontiers in Chemistry. 6: 360. Bibcode:2018FrCh....6..360V. doi:10.3389/fchem.2018.00360. ISSN 2296-2646. PMC 6109690. PMID 30177965.</ref> allowing for varying chemical reactivities and diffusion effects that can be studied and changed for diversified applications.

A common application of nanomedicine is in therapeutic drug delivery, where nanoparticles containing drugs for therapeutic treatment of disease are introduced into the body and act as vessels that deliver the drugs to the targeted area. The nanoparticle vessels, which can be made of organic or synthetic components, can further be functionalized by adjusting their size, shape, surface charge, and surface attachments (proteins, coatings, polymers, etc.).<ref name=":1">"Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications - 1st Edition". www.elsevier.com. Retrieved 2021-04-02.</ref> The opportunity for functionalizing nanoparticles in such ways is especially beneficial when targeting areas of the body that have certain physiochemical properties that prevent the intended drug from reaching the targeted area alone; for example, some nanoparticles are able to bypass the Blood Brain Barrier to deliver therapeutic drugs to the brain.<ref>Zhou, Yiqun; Peng, Zhili; Seven, Elif S.; Leblanc, Roger M. (2018-01-28). "Crossing the blood-brain barrier with nanoparticles". Journal of Controlled Release. 270: 290–303. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.12.015. ISSN 0168-3659. PMID 29269142. S2CID 25472949.</ref> Nanoparticles have recently been used in cancer therapy treatments and vaccines.<ref>Park, Kyung Soo; Sun, Xiaoqi; Aikins, Marisa E.; Moon, James J. (2021-02-01). "Non-viral COVID-19 vaccine delivery systems". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 169: 137–151. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.008. ISSN 0169-409X. PMC 7744276. PMID 33340620.</ref><ref>Debele, Tilahun Ayane; Yeh, Cheng-Fa; Su, Wen-Pin (2020-12-15). "Cancer Immunotherapy and Application of Nanoparticles in Cancers Immunotherapy as the Delivery of Immunotherapeutic Agents and as the Immunomodulators". Cancers. 12 (12): 3773. doi:10.3390/cancers12123773. ISSN 2072-6694. PMC 7765190. PMID 33333816.</ref><ref>Dasgupta, Debayan; Pally, Dharma; Saini, Deepak; Bhat, Ramray; Ghosh, Ambarish (2020). "Nanomotors Sense Local Physicochemical Heterogeneities in Tumor Microenvironments". Angewandte Chemie. 59 (52): 23690–23696. doi:10.1002/anie.202008681. PMC 7756332. PMID 32918839.</ref><ref>"Nanomotors as probes to sense cancer environment". Phys.Org. September 30, 2020.</ref> Magnetic nanorobots have demonstrated capabilities to prevent and treat antimicrobial resistant bacteria. Application of nanomotor implants have been proposed to achieve thorough disinfection of the dentine.<ref>Dasgupta, Debayan; Peddi, Shanmukh; Saini, Deepak Kumar; Ghosh, Ambarish (2022-05-04). "Mobile Nanobots for Prevention of Root Canal Treatment Failure". Advanced Healthcare Materials. 11 (14): 2200232. doi:10.1002/adhm.202200232. ISSN 2192-2640. PMC 7613116. PMID 35481942.</ref><ref>"Tiny bots that can deep clean teeth". 2022-05-18.</ref>

In vivo imaging is also a key part in nanomedicine, as nanoparticles can be used as contrast agents for common imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET).<ref name=":3" /> The ability for nanoparticles to localize and circulate in specific cells, tissues, or organs through their design can provide high contrast that results in higher sensitivity imaging, and thus can be applicable in studying pharmacokinetics or visual disease diagnosis.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

Energy applications

The energy applications of nanotechnology relates to using the small size of nanoparticles to store energy more efficiently. This promotes the use of renewable energy through green nanotechnology by generating, storing, and using energy without emitting harmful greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide.

Solar Cells

Nanoparticles used in solar cells are increasing the amount of energy absorbed from sunlight.<ref>Serrano, Elena; Rus, Guillermo; García-Martínez, Javier (2009-12-01). "Nanotechnology for sustainable energy". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 13 (9): 2373–2384. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2009.06.003. ISSN 1364-0321.</ref> Solar cells are currently created from layers of silicon that absorb sunlight and convert it to usable electricity.<ref name=":4">"Nanotechnology Phenomena in the Light of the Solar Energy". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</ref> Using noble metals such as gold coated on top of silicon, researchers have found that they are able to transform energy more efficiently into electrical current.<ref name=":4" /> Much of the energy that is loss during this transformation is due to heat, however by using nanoparticles there is less heat emitted thus producing more electricity.<ref name=":4" />

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Nanotechnology is enabling the use of hydrogen energy at a much higher capacity.<ref name=":5">Sarno, Maria (2020-01-01). "Nanotechnology in energy storage: the supercapacitors". Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis. 179: 431–458. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64337-7.00022-7. ISBN 9780444643377. ISSN 0167-2991. S2CID 214425773.</ref> Hydrogen fuel cells, while they are not an energy source themselves, allow for storing energy from sunlight and other renewable sources in an environmentally-friendly fashion without any CO₂ emissions.<ref name=":5" />  Some of the main drawbacks of traditional hydrogen fuel cells are that they are expensive and not durable enough for commercial uses.<ref name=":6">Hussein, Ahmed Kadhim (2015-02-01). "Applications of nanotechnology in renewable energies—A comprehensive overview and understanding". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 42: 460–476. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.027. ISSN 1364-0321.</ref> However, by using nanoparticles, both the durability and price over time improve significantly.<ref name=":6" /> Furthermore, conventional fuel cells are too large to be stored in volume, but researchers have discovered that nanoblades can store greater volumes of hydrogen that can then be saved inside carbon nanotubes for long-term storage.<ref name=":6" />

Nanographene Batteries

Nanotechnology is giving rise to nanographene batteries that can store energy more efficiently and weigh less.<ref name=":7">Li, Yong; Yang, Jie; Song, Jian (2017-03-01). "Nano energy system model and nanoscale effect of graphene battery in renewable energy electric vehicle". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 69: 652–663. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.118. ISSN 1364-0321.</ref> Lithium-ion batteries have been the primary battery technology in electronics for the last decade, but the current limits in the technology make it difficult to densify batteries due to the potential dangers of heat and explosion.<ref name=":5" /> Graphene batteries being tested in experimental electric cars have promised capacities 4 times greater than current batteries with the cost being 77% lower.<ref name=":7" /> Additionally, graphene batteries provide stable life cycles of up to 250,000 cycles,<ref>Xu, Hanyan; Chen, Hao; Lai, Haiwen; Li, Zheng; Dong, Xiaozhong; Cai, Shengying; Chu, Xingyuan; Gao, Chao (2020-06-01). "Capacitive charge storage enables an ultrahigh cathode capacity in aluminum-graphene battery". Journal of Energy Chemistry. 45: 40–44. doi:10.1016/j.jechem.2019.09.025. ISSN 2095-4956.</ref> which would allow electric vehicles and long-term products a reliable energy source for decades.