Energy development

Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural resources. These activities include the production of renewable, nuclear, and fossil fuel derived sources of energy, and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development, and can have benefits to society with improvements to environmental issues.

Societies use energy for transportation, manufacturing, illumination, heating and air conditioning, and communication, for industrial, commercial, and domestic purposes. Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, where the resource can be used in substantially its original form, or as secondary resources, where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form. Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use, whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation.

Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry. The conventional industry comprises the petroleum industry, the natural gas industry, the electrical power industry, and the nuclear industry. New energy industries include the renewable energy industry, comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture, distribution, and sale of alternative fuels.

Classification of resources

Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, suitable for end use without conversion to another form, or secondary resources, where the usable form of energy required substantial conversion from a primary source. Examples of primary energy resources are wind power, solar power, wood fuel, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, and uranium. Secondary resources are those such as electricity, hydrogen, or other synthetic fuels.

Another important classification is based on the time required to regenerate an energy resource. "Renewable" resources are those that recover their capacity in a time significant by human needs. Examples are hydroelectric power or wind power, when the natural phenomena that are the primary source of energy are ongoing and not depleted by human demands. Non-renewable resources are those that are significantly depleted by human usage and that will not recover their potential significantly during human lifetimes. An example of a non-renewable energy source is coal, which does not form naturally at a rate that would support human use.

Fossil fuels

Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation. These fossil fuels are part of the carbon cycle and allow solar energy stored in the fuel to be released.

The use of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current primary energy sources. In 2005, 81% of the world's energy needs was met from fossil sources.<ref>International Energy Agency: Key World Energy Statistics 2007. S. 6</ref> The technology and infrastructure for the use of fossil fuels already exist. Liquid fuels derived from petroleum deliver much usable energy per unit of weight or volume, which is advantageous when compared with lower energy density sources such as batteries. Fossil fuels are currently economical for decentralized energy use.

A (horizontal) drilling rig for natural gas in Texas

Energy dependence on imported fossil fuels creates energy security risks for dependent countries.<ref>Energy Security and Climate Policy: Assessing Interactions. p125</ref><ref>Energy Security: Economics, Politics, Strategies, and Implications. Edited by Carlos Pascual, Jonathan Elkind. p210</ref><ref>Geothermal Energy Resources for Developing Countries. By D. Chandrasekharam, J. Bundschuh. p91</ref><ref>Congressional Record, V. 153, PT. 2, January 18, 2007 to February 1, 2007 edited by U S Congress, Congress (U.S.). p 1618</ref><ref>India s Energy Security. Edited by Ligia Noronha, Anant Sudarshan.</ref> Oil dependence in particular has led to war,<ref>National security, safety, technology, and employment implications of increasing CAFE standards : hearing before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, second session, January 24, 2002. DIANE Publishing. p10</ref> funding of radicals,<ref>Ending our-Dependence on Oil Archived 2013-03-19 at the Wayback Machine - American Security Project. americansecurityproject.org</ref> monopolization,<ref>Energy Dependency, Politics and Corruption in the Former Soviet Union. By Margarita M. Balmaceda. Psychology Press, December 6, 2007.</ref> and socio-political instability.<ref>Oil-Led Development Archived May 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine: Social, Political, and Economic Consequences. Terry Lynn Karl. Stanford University. Stanford, California, United States.</ref>

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources, which will eventually decline in production <ref>Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation, and Risk Management. Was at: www.pppl.gov/polImage.cfm?doc_Id=44&size_code=Doc</ref> and become exhausted. While the processes that created fossil fuels are ongoing, fuels are consumed far more quickly than the natural rate of replenishment. Extracting fuels becomes increasingly costly as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits.<ref>"Big Rig Building Boom". Rigzone.com. 2006-04-13. Archived from the original on 2007-10-21. Retrieved 2008-01-18.</ref> Extraction of fossil fuels results in environmental degradation, such as the strip mining and mountaintop removal for coal.

Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier fuel into kinetic energy or work. The fuel economy is the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle, is given as a ratio of distance travelled per unit of fuel consumed. Weight-specific efficiency (efficiency per unit weight) may be stated for freight, and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle efficiency) per passenger. The inefficient atmospheric combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to urban heat islands.<ref>"Heat Island Group Home Page". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 2000-08-30. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-19.</ref>

Conventional production of oil peaked, conservatively, between 2007 and 2010. In 2010, it was estimated that an investment of $8 trillion in non-renewable resources would be required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years.<ref>"Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"?". nationalgeographic.com. 2010-11-11. Archived from the original on 2014-08-12.</ref> In 2010, governments subsidized fossil fuels by an estimated $500 billion a year.<ref name="sciencedaily1">ScienceDaily.com (April 22, 2010) "Fossil-Fuel Subsidies Hurting Global Environment, Security, Study Finds" Archived 2016-04-10 at the Wayback Machine</ref> Fossil fuels are also a source of greenhouse gas emissions, leading to concerns about global warming if consumption is not reduced.

The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. The fossil fuels are mainly carbon compounds. During combustion, carbon dioxide is released, and also nitrogen oxides, soot and other fine particulates. The carbon dioxide is the main contributor to recent climate change.<ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007): IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Working Group I Report on "The Physical Science Basis".</ref> Other emissions from fossil fuel power station include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOC), mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals including traces of uranium.<ref>"Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution". Union of Concerned Scientists. 18 August 2005. Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2008.</ref><ref>NRDC: There Is No Such Thing as "Clean Coal" Archived July 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine</ref>

A typical coal plant generates billions of kilowatt hours of electrical power per year.<ref>How much electricity does a typical nuclear power plant generate Archived 2013-07-29 at the Wayback Machine? - FAQ - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)</ref>

Nuclear

Fission

American nuclear powered ships,(top to bottom) cruisers USS Bainbridge, the USS Long Beach and the USS Enterprise, the longest ever naval vessel, and the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Picture taken in 1964 during a record setting voyage of 26,540 nmi (49,190 km) around the world in 65 days without refueling. Crew members are spelling out Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc² on the flight deck.

The Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker NS Yamal on a joint scientific expedition with the NSF in 1994

Nuclear power is the use of nuclear fission to generate useful heat and electricity. Fission of uranium produces nearly all economically significant nuclear power. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators form a very small component of energy generation, mostly in specialized applications such as deep space vehicles.

Nuclear power plants, excluding naval reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012.<ref> "Key World Energy Statistics 2012" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2012-12-17. </ref>

In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors,<ref name="iaea.org">"PRIS - Home". Iaea.org. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</ref> in 31 countries,<ref name="UIC">"World Nuclear Power Reactors 2007-08 and Uranium Requirements". World Nuclear Association. 2008-06-09. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-21.</ref> although not every reactor is producing electricity.<ref>"Japan approves two reactor restarts". Taipei Times. 2013-06-07. Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</ref> In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors.<ref>"What is Nuclear Power Plant - How Nuclear Power Plants work | What is Nuclear Power Reactor - Types of Nuclear Power Reactors". EngineersGarage. Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</ref><ref>"Nuclear-Powered Ships | Nuclear Submarines". World-nuclear.org. Archived from the original on 2013-06-12. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</ref><ref>"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-26. Retrieved 2015-06-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Naval Nuclear Propulsion, Magdi Ragheb. As of 2001, about 235 naval reactors had been built</ref> As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.<ref name="ITERorg">"Beyond ITER". The ITER Project. Information Services, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. Archived from the original on 7 November 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2011. - Projected fusion power timeline</ref>

There is an ongoing debate about nuclear power.<ref>Union-Tribune Editorial Board (March 27, 2011). "The nuclear controversy". Union-Tribune. Archived from the original on November 19, 2011.</ref><ref name="jstor.org">James J. MacKenzie. Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy by Arthur W. Murphy The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 467-468.</ref><ref name="A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power">In February 2010 the nuclear power debate played out on the pages of The New York Times, see A Reasonable Bet on Nuclear Power Archived 2017-02-01 at the Wayback Machine and Revisiting Nuclear Power: A Debate Archived 2017-04-09 at the Wayback Machine and A Comeback for Nuclear Power? Archived 2010-02-26 at the Wayback Machine</ref> Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association, the IAEA and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions.<ref name="bloomberg.com">U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power Archived 2009-06-26 at the Wayback Machine.</ref> Opponents contend that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.<ref>Spencer R. Weart (2012). The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674065062.</ref><ref name="Sturgis">Sturgis, Sue. "Investigation: Revelations about Three Mile Island disaster raise doubts over nuclear plant safety". Institute for Southern Studies. Archived from the original on 2010-04-18. Retrieved 2010-08-24.</ref>

Nuclear power plant accidents include the Chernobyl disaster (1986), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979).<ref name=timenuke/> There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents.<ref name=timenuke>"The Worst Nuclear Disasters". Time.com. 2009-03-25. Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 2013-06-22.</ref><ref name=rad>Strengthening the Safety of Radiation Sources Archived 2009-03-26 at the Wayback Machine p. 14.</ref><ref name=johnston2007>Johnston, Robert (September 23, 2007). "Deadliest radiation accidents and other events causing radiation casualties". Database of Radiological Incidents and Related Events. Archived from the original on October 23, 2007.</ref> In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, analysis has determined that nuclear power has caused less fatalities per unit of energy generated than the other major sources of energy generation. Energy production from coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused a greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to air pollution and energy accident effects.<ref name="autogenerated2007">Markandya, A.; Wilkinson, P. (2007). "Electricity generation and health". Lancet. 370 (9591): 979–990. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7. PMID 17876910. S2CID 25504602.</ref><ref name="without the hot air">"Dr. MacKay Sustainable Energy without the hot air". Data from studies by the Paul Scherrer Institute including non EU data. p. 168. Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 15 September 2012.</ref><ref>"How Deadly is Your Kilowatt? We Rank the Killer Energy Sources". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2012-06-10. Retrieved 2017-05-13. with Chernobyl's total predicted linear no-threshold cancer deaths included, nuclear power is safer when compared to many alternative energy sources' immediate, death rate.</ref><ref name="theage2006">Brendan Nicholson (2006-06-05). "Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas". The Age. Archived from the original on 2008-02-08. Retrieved 2008-01-18.</ref><ref name="tandfonline1">Burgherr Peter (2008). "A Comparative Analysis of Accident Risks in Fossil, Hydro, and Nuclear Energy Chains" (PDF). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 14 (5): 947–973, 962–5. doi:10.1080/10807030802387556. S2CID 110522982. Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident", an accident with more than 5 fatalities, classification.</ref> However, the economic costs of nuclear power accidents is high, and meltdowns can take decades to clean up. The human costs of evacuations of affected populations and lost livelihoods is also significant.<ref name="Richard Schiffman">Richard Schiffman (12 March 2013). "Two years on, America hasn't learned lessons of Fukushima nuclear disaster". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017.</ref><ref name="Martin Fackler">Martin Fackler (June 1, 2011). "Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 5, 2017.</ref>

Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident" classification, which would be an accident with more than 5 fatalities.

As of 2012, according to the IAEA, worldwide there were 68 civil nuclear power reactors under construction in 15 countries,<ref name="iaea.org"/> approximately 28 of which in the People's Republic of China (PRC), with the most recent nuclear power reactor, as of May 2013, to be connected to the electrical grid, occurring on February 17, 2013, in Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Plant in the PRC.<ref>"Worldwide First Reactor to Start Up in 2013, in China - World Nuclear Industry Status Report". Worldnuclearreport.org. 18 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-06-02. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</ref> In the United States, two new Generation III reactors are under construction at Vogtle. U.S. nuclear industry officials expect five new reactors to enter service by 2020, all at existing plants.<ref name=us12>Ayesha Rascoe (February 9, 2012). "U.S. approves first new nuclear plant in a generation". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 1, 2017.</ref> In 2013, four aging, uncompetitive, reactors were permanently closed.<ref name="Mark Cooper">Mark Cooper (18 June 2013). "Nuclear aging: Not so graceful". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013.</ref><ref name=mw11111>Matthew Wald (June 14, 2013). "Nuclear Plants, Old and Uncompetitive, Are Closing Earlier Than Expected". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 26, 2017.</ref>

Recent experiments in extraction of uranium use polymer ropes that are coated with a substance that selectively absorbs uranium from seawater. This process could make the considerable volume of uranium dissolved in seawater exploitable for energy production. Since ongoing geologic processes carry uranium to the sea in amounts comparable to the amount that would be extracted by this process, in a sense the sea-borne uranium becomes a sustainable resource.<ref>Conca, James. "Uranium Seawater Extraction Makes Nuclear Power Completely Renewable". forbes.com. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</ref><ref>April 20, 2016 Volume 55, Issue 15 Pages 4101-4362 In this issue:Uranium in Seawater Page 962 to 965</ref>^[relevant?]

Nuclear power is a low carbon power generation method of producing electricity, with an analysis of the literature on its total life cycle emission intensity finding that it is similar to renewable sources in a comparison of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per unit of energy generated.<ref>"Collectively, life cycle assessment literature shows that nuclear power is similar to other renewable and much lower than fossil fuel in total life cycle GHG emissions". Nrel.gov. 2013-01-24. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2013-06-22.</ref><ref name="Wagner2021">Wagner, Friedrich (2021). "CO2 emissions of nuclear power and renewable energies: a statistical analysis of European and global data". The European Physical Journal Plus. 136 (5): 562. Bibcode:2021EPJP..136..562W. doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01508-7. ISSN 2190-5444.</ref> Since the 1970s, nuclear fuel has displaced about 64 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gases, that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of oil, coal or natural gas in fossil-fuel power stations.<ref>Kharecha Pushker A (2013). "Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power - global nuclear power has prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning". Environmental Science. 47 (9): 4889–4895. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.4889K. doi:10.1021/es3051197. hdl:2060/20140017100. PMID 23495839.</ref>

Nuclear power phase-out and pull-backs

Japan's 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, which occurred in a reactor design from the 1960s, prompted a rethink of nuclear safety and nuclear energy policy in many countries.<ref name=sciamer2011/> Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power.<ref name=sciamer2011>Sylvia Westall; Fredrik Dahl (June 24, 2011). "IAEA Head Sees Wide Support for Stricter Nuclear Plant Safety". Scientific American. Archived from the original on June 25, 2011.</ref> Following Fukushima, in 2011 the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.<ref name="economist-20110428">"Gauging the pressure". The Economist. 28 April 2011. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012.</ref><ref name=late>European Environment Agency (January 23, 2013). "Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation: Full Report". p. 476. Archived from the original on May 17, 2013.</ref>

Fukushima

Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster – the second worst nuclear incident, that displaced 50,000 households after radioactive material leaked into the air, soil and sea,<ref>Tomoko Yamazaki; Shunichi Ozasa (27 June 2011). "Fukushima Retiree Leads Anti-Nuclear Shareholders at Tepco Annual Meeting". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 30 June 2011.</ref> and with subsequent radiation checks leading to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish<ref>Mari Saito (7 May 2011). "Japan anti-nuclear protesters rally after PM call to close plant". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011.</ref> – a global public support survey by Ipsos (2011) for energy sources was published and nuclear fission was found to be the least popular<ref name="Ipsos-Fukushima">Ipsos (23 June 2011), Global Citizen Reaction to the Fukushima Nuclear Plant Disaster (theme: environment / climate) Ipsos Global @dvisor (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2014. Survey website: Ipsos MORI: Poll: Strong global opposition towards nuclear power Archived 2016-04-03 at the Wayback Machine.</ref>

Fission economics

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs. In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which affects large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks.<ref name=kidd2011/> In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out.<ref name=kidd2011>Kidd, Steve (January 21, 2011). "New reactors—more or less?". Nuclear Engineering International. Archived from the original on 2011-12-12.</ref> Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects.<ref name=kidd2011/>

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by state-owned or regulated utility monopolies<ref name="ft-20100912">Ed Crooks (12 September 2010). "Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 12 September 2010.</ref><ref name="NERA-20120316">Edward Kee (16 March 2012). "Future of Nuclear Energy" (PDF). NERA Economic Consulting. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.</ref> where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.<ref name="MIT-2003">The Future of Nuclear Power. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2003. ISBN 978-0-615-12420-9. Archived from the original on 2017-05-18. Retrieved 2006-11-10.</ref>

Costs

Costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats.<ref name="Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2011 xv">Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2011). "The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle" (PDF). p. xv. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-06-01.</ref> While first of their kind designs, such as the EPRs under construction are behind schedule and over-budget, of the seven South Korean APR-1400s presently under construction worldwide, two are in S.Korea at the Hanul Nuclear Power Plant and four are at the largest nuclear station construction project in the world as of 2016, in the United Arab Emirates at the planned Barakah nuclear power plant. The first reactor, Barakah-1 is 85% completed and on schedule for grid-connection during 2017.<ref>"UAE's fourth power reactor under construction". www.world-nuclear-news.org. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</ref><ref>"The Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation ( ENEC ) provided a project update on the status of the UAE peaceful nuclear energy program". www.fananews.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</ref> Two of the four EPRs under construction (in Finland and France) are significantly behind schedule and substantially over cost.<ref name="Patel">Patel, Tara; Francois de Beaupuy (24 November 2010). "China Builds Nuclear Reactor for 40% Less Than Cost in France, Areva Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 2011-03-08.</ref>

Renewable sources

The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a percentage of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.<ref name=BP-Ember_20211103>Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate (3 November 2021). "Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020". OurWorldInData.org. Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021.</ref>

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.<ref>"The myth of renewable energy | Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists". Thebulletin.org. 2011-11-22. Archived from the original on 2013-10-07. Retrieved 2013-10-03.</ref> Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.<ref name=ren15>REN21 (2010). Renewables 2010 Global Status Report p. 15. Archived April 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine</ref>

About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from renewable resources^{[contradictory]}, with 10% <ref>"Energy for Cooking in Developed Countries" (PDF). 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-11-15. Retrieved 2018-07-13.</ref> of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly.<ref name="ria21">REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report" (PDF). pp. 17, 18. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)</ref> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.<ref>REN21 (2013). "Renewables global futures report 2013" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)^{[permanent dead link]}</ref> Wind power, for example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012.

Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.<ref>International Energy Agency (2012). "Energy Technology Perspectives 2012" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-07-08.</ref> In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.<ref name="UNEP">United Nations Environment Programme Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries Archived March 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (PDF), p. 3.</ref>

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.<ref>World Energy Assessment (2001). Renewable energy technologies Archived June 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, p. 221.</ref> United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.<ref name="renewableenergyworld1">Steve Leone (25 August 2011). "U.N. Secretary-General: Renewables Can End Energy Poverty". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013.</ref>

Hydroelectricity

The 22,500 MW Three Gorges Dam in China – the world's largest hydroelectric power station

Hydroelectricity is electric power generated by hydropower; the force of falling or flowing water. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity <ref>"Renewables 2016: Global Status Report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2017-05-24.</ref>^{[page needed]} and was expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the following 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.<ref name=wi2012>Worldwatch Institute (January 2012). "Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases". Archived from the original on 2014-09-24. Retrieved 2014-01-11.</ref>

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.<ref name=wi2012/> Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.<ref name=wi2012/> Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide than fossil fuel powered energy plants.<ref name="REN21-2011">Renewables 2011 Global Status Report, page 25, Hydropower Archived April 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, REN21, published 2011, accessed 2011-11-7.</ref>

Wind

Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm in Northwest England

Global growth of wind power capacity

Wind power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. There are offshore and onshore wind farms. Global wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly.<ref name="wwea2014-halfyear">The World Wind Energy Association (2014). 2014 Half-year Report. WWEA. pp. 1–8.</ref>

Wind power is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States.<ref name="Glob">Global wind energy markets continue to boom – 2006 another record year Archived 2011-04-07 at the Wayback Machine (PDF).</ref> Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark,<ref name="wwea">"World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.</ref> 18% in Portugal,<ref name="wwea"/> 16% in Spain,<ref name="wwea"/> 14% in Ireland,<ref>"Renewables". eirgrid.com. Archived from the original on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2010.</ref> and 9% in Germany in 2010.<ref name="wwea"/><ref name=ren212011>REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)</ref>^: 11 By 2011, at times over 50% of electricity in Germany and Spain came from wind and solar power.<ref>"This page has been removed - News - The Guardian". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-02-26.</ref><ref>Spain Renewable Energy and High Penetration Archived June 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine</ref> As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.<ref name=ren212011/>^: 11

Many of the world's largest onshore wind farms are located in the United States, China, and India. Most of the world's largest offshore wind farms are located in Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom. The two largest offshore wind farm are currently the 630 MW London Array and Gwynt y Môr.

Large onshore wind farms
Wind farm	Current capacity (MW)	Country	Notes
Alta (Oak Creek-Mojave)	1,320	USA	<ref name=terragen>Terra-Gen Press Release Archived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, 17 April 2012</ref>
Jaisalmer Wind Park	1,064	India	<ref name=Jaisalmer>BS Reporter (11 May 2012). "Suzlon creates country's largest wind park". business-standard.com. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012.</ref>
Roscoe Wind Farm	781	USA	<ref>"Top News". www.renewableenergyworld.com. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</ref>
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center	735	USA	<ref name=drilling/><ref name=tex>AWEA: U.S. Wind Energy Projects – Texas Archived December 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine</ref>
Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm	662	USA	<ref name=drilling>"Drilling Down: What Projects Made 2008 Such a Banner Year for Wind Power?". renewableenergyworld.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15.</ref><ref name=tex/>
Fântânele-Cogealac Wind Farm	600	Romania	<ref name=cez>FG Forrest; a. s.; fg {zavináč } fg {tečka} cz - Content Management System - Edee CMS; SYMBIO Digital, s. r. o. - Webdesign. "CEZ Group - The Largest Wind Farm in Europe Goes Into Trial Operation". cez.cz. Archived from the original on 2015-07-01.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</ref>
Fowler Ridge Wind Farm	599	USA	<ref name=ind>AWEA: U.S. Wind Energy Projects – Indiana Archived 2010-09-18 at the Wayback Machine</ref>

Solar

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Biofuels

A bus fueled by biodiesel

Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, California

A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent carbon fixation. These fuels are produced from living organisms. Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae. These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy security.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. However, research is underway on producing renewable fuels from decarboxylation<ref>Santillan-Jimenez Eduardo (2015). "Continuous catalytic deoxygenation of model and algal lipids to fuel-like hydrocarbons over Ni–Al layered double hydroxide". Catalysis Today. 258: 284–293. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2014.12.004.</ref>

In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009,<ref name=Biofuels2010>"Biofuels Make a Comeback Despite Tough Economy". Worldwatch Institute. 2011-08-31. Archived from the original on 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2011-08-31.</ref> and biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.^{[citation needed]} Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.<ref name=Biofuels2010/> As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces.<ref name=ren212011/>^: 13–14 The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.<ref>"Technology Roadmap, Biofuels for Transport" (PDF). 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-07-22.</ref>

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).<ref name=ucsusa>How Geothermal energy works Archived 2014-09-25 at the Wayback Machine. Ucsusa.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-24.</ref> The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F).<ref>Lay T., Hernlund J., Buffett B. A. (2008). "Core–mantle boundary heat flow". Nature Geoscience. 1 (1): 25–32. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1...25L. doi:10.1038/ngeo.2007.44.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</ref> The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).<ref>Nemzer, J. "Geothermal heating and cooling". Archived from the original on 1998-01-11.</ref>

From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.<ref>"Geothermal capacity | About BP | BP Global". Bp.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-06. Retrieved 2013-10-05.</ref> An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.<ref name="IPCC">Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (2008-02-11), O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin, ed., The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change (pdf), IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources, Luebeck, Germany, pp. 59–80, retrieved 2009-04-06</ref>

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,<ref>Glassley, William E. (2010). Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, CRC Press, ISBN 9781420075700.</ref> but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program <ref>Green Power Archived 2014-10-15 at the Wayback Machine. eweb.org</ref> show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades.<ref>Cothran, Helen (2002), Energy Alternatives, Greenhaven Press, ISBN 978-0737709049</ref> In 2001, geothermal energy cost between two and ten US cents per kWh.<ref>Fridleifsson, Ingvar (2001). "Geothermal energy for the benefit of the people". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 5 (3): 299–312. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.1779. doi:10.1016/S1364-0321(01)00002-8.</ref>

Oceanic

Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries.

The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal power i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.

100% renewable energy

The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than anyone anticipated.<ref name=pg11>Paul Gipe (4 April 2013). "100 Percent Renewable Vision Building". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.</ref> The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand.<ref name="IPCC 2011 17">IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation" (PDF). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-11.</ref> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Also, Stephen W. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of "stabilization wedges" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."<ref name=Pacala>S. Pacala; R. Socolow (2004). "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies" (PDF). Science. Science Vol. 305. 305 (5686): 968–972. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..968P. doi:10.1126/science.1100103. PMID 15310891. S2CID 2203046. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-08-12.</ref>

Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.<ref name=enpol2011>Mark A. Delucchi; Mark Z. Jacobson (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies" (PDF). Energy Policy. Elsevier Ltd. pp. 1170–1190. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-06-16.</ref>

Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly larger amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand." .<ref name=NRC>National Research Council (2010). Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and Impediments. National Academies of Science. p. 4. doi:10.17226/12619. ISBN 978-0-309-13708-9. Archived from the original on 2014-03-27.</ref>

Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but Amory Lovins argues that the electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.<ref name=lovi12>Amory Lovins (March–April 2012). "A Farewell to Fossil Fuels". Foreign Affairs. 329 (5997): 1292–1294. Bibcode:2010Sci...329.1292H. doi:10.1126/science.1195449. PMID 20829473. S2CID 206529026. Archived from the original on 2012-07-07.</ref>

Google spent $30 million on their "Renewable Energy Cheaper than Coal" project to develop renewable energy and stave off catastrophic climate change. The project was cancelled after concluding that a best-case scenario for rapid advances in renewable energy could only result in emissions 55 percent below the fossil fuel projections for 2050.<ref>"What It Would Really Take to Reverse Climate Change". ieee.org. 2014-11-18. Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2018.</ref>

Increased energy efficiency

A spiral-type integrated compact fluorescent lamp, which has been popular among North American consumers since its introduction in the mid-1990s<ref>"Philips Tornado Asian Compact Fluorescent". Philips. Archived from the original on 2012-08-04. Retrieved 2007-12-24.</ref>

Although increasing the efficiency of energy use is not energy development per se, it may be considered under the topic of energy development since it makes existing energy sources available to do work.<ref>Richard L. Kauffman Obstacles to Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency. in: From Silos to Systems: Issues in Clean Energy and Climate Change. A report on the work of the REIL Network, 2008-2010. Edited by Parker L et al. Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies 2010</ref>^: 22

Efficient energy use reduces the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lamps or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required for illumination compared to incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting an efficient technology or production process.<ref>Diesendorf, Mark (2007). Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy, UNSW Press, p. 86.</ref>

Reducing energy use may save consumers money, if the energy savings offsets the cost of an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use reduces emissions. According to the International Energy Agency, improved energy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and transportation could reduce the global energy demand in 2050 to around 8% smaller than today, but serving an economy more than twice as big and a population of about 2 billion more people.<ref>IEA (2021), Net Zero by 2050, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050, License: CC BY 4.0</ref>

Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy.<ref>"The Twin Pillars of Sustainable Energy: Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Technology and Policy". Aceee.org. Archived from the original on 2009-04-29. Retrieved 2010-07-16.</ref> In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

It's been discovered "that for OECD countries, wind, geothermal, hydro and nuclear have the lowest hazard rates among energy sources in production".<ref>Ross, Cullen (26 August 2016). "Evaluating renewable energy policies" (PDF). The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics. 61 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1111/1467-8489.12175. hdl:10.1111/1467-8489.12175. S2CID 157313814.</ref>

Transmission

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves.<ref>"News". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2010-09-22.</ref> The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology.<ref>Fuel Cell Materials Technology in Vehicular Propulsion: Report. National Academies, 1983.</ref> This section presents the various delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.

Shipping and pipelines

Coal, petroleum and their derivatives are delivered by boat, rail, or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered by pipeline, and coal via a Slurry pipeline. Fuels such as gasoline and LPG may also be delivered via aircraft. Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive.<ref> "Oak Ridge National Laboratory — Biomass, Solving the science is only part of the challenge". Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2008-01-06.</ref>

Wired energy transfer

Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute power from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations and transmission lines are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity. Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions. Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.

Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced,^{[citation needed]} although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia.

Wireless energy transfer

Wireless power transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. Currently available technology is limited to short distances and relatively low power level.

Orbiting solar power collectors would require wireless transmission of power to Earth. The proposed method involves creating a large beam of microwave-frequency radio waves, which would be aimed at a collector antenna site on the Earth. Formidable technical challenges exist to ensure the safety and profitability of such a scheme.

Storage

Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media that store energy to perform useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator.

All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock. A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy in the form of latent heat) at night to meet peak demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

History

Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought endlessly for energy sources.

Except nuclear, geothermal and tidal, all other energy sources are from current solar isolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied upon sunlight. Ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion. Geothermal power from hot, hardened rock above the magma of the Earth's core is the result of the decay of radioactive materials present beneath the Earth's crust, and nuclear fission relies on man-made fission of heavy radioactive elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements were produced in supernova explosions before the formation of the Solar System.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the question of the future of energy supplies has been of interest. In 1865, William Stanley Jevons published The Coal Question in which he saw that the reserves of coal were being depleted and that oil was an ineffective replacement. In 1914, U.S. Bureau of Mines stated that the total production was 5.7 billion barrels (910,000,000 m³). In 1956, Geophysicist M. King Hubbert deduces that U.S. oil production would peak between 1965 and 1970 and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data. In 1989, predicted peak by Colin Campbell<ref>"Oil Price Leap in the Early Nineties," Noroil, December 1989, pages 35–38.</ref> In 2004, OPEC estimated, with substantial investments, it would nearly double oil output by 2025<ref>Opec Oil Outlook to 2025 Table 4, Page 12</ref>

Sustainability

The environmental movement has emphasized sustainability of energy use and development.<ref>Sustainable Development and Innovation in the Energy Sector. Ulrich Steger, Wouter Achterberg, Kornelis Blok, Henning Bode, Walter Frenz, Corinna Gather, Gerd Hanekamp, Dieter Imboden, Matthias Jahnke, Michael Kost, Rudi Kurz, Hans G. Nutzinger, Thomas Ziesemer. Springer, December 5, 2005.</ref> Renewable energy is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially air pollution. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point. With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt various energy sources is growing. Energy conservation is an alternative or complementary process to energy development. It reduces the demand for energy by using it efficiently.

Resilience

Some observers contend that idea of "energy independence" is an unrealistic and opaque concept.<ref>"Energy independence and security: A reality check" (PDF). deloitte.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2013.</ref> The alternative offer of "energy resilience" is a goal aligned with economic, security, and energy realities. The notion of resilience in energy was detailed in the 1982 book Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for National Security.<ref>Brittle Power: Energy Plan for National Security Archived 2009-07-02 at the Wayback Machine. Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins (1982).</ref> The authors argued that simply switching to domestic energy would not be secure inherently because the true weakness is the often interdependent and vulnerable energy infrastructure of a country. Key aspects such as gas lines and the electrical power grid are often centralized and easily susceptible to disruption. They conclude that a "resilient energy supply" is necessary for both national security and the environment. They recommend a focus on energy efficiency and renewable energy that is decentralized.<ref>"The Fragility of Domestic Energy." Archived 2009-01-06 at the Wayback Machine Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins. Atlantic Monthly. November 1983.</ref>

In 2008, former Intel Corporation Chairman and CEO Andrew Grove looked to energy resilience, arguing that complete independence is unfeasible given the global market for energy.<ref>"Our Electric Future." Archived 2014-08-25 at the Wayback Machine Andrew Grove. The American. July/August 2008.</ref> He describes energy resilience as the ability to adjust to interruptions in the supply of energy. To that end, he suggests the U.S. make greater use of electricity.<ref>Andrew Grove and Robert Burgelman (December 2008). "An Electric Plan for Energy Resilience". McKinsey Quarterly. Archived from the original on 2014-08-25. Retrieved 2010-07-20.</ref> Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources. A diverse energy supply will be less affected by the disruption in supply of any one source. He reasons that another feature of electrification is that electricity is "sticky" – meaning the electricity produced in the U.S. is to stay there because it cannot be transported overseas. According to Grove, a key aspect of advancing electrification and energy resilience will be converting the U.S. automotive fleet from gasoline-powered to electric-powered. This, in turn, will require the modernization and expansion of the electrical power grid. As organizations such as The Reform Institute have pointed out, advancements associated with the developing smart grid would facilitate the ability of the grid to absorb vehicles en masse connecting to it to charge their batteries.<ref>Resilience in Energy: Building Infrastructure Today for Tomorrow's Automotive Fuel. Reform Institute. March 2009.^{[permanent dead link]}</ref>

Present and future

Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures.<ref>Mandil, C. (2008) "Our energy for the future". S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1) Archived 2009-04-28 at the Wayback Machine</ref> Predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.^{[citation needed]}

Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If investment is greater than the value of the energy produced by the resource, it is no longer an effective energy source. These resources are no longer an energy source but may be exploited for value as raw materials. New technology may lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.

Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation.<ref>"Eating Fossil Fuels". Resilience. Archived from the original on 2007-06-11.</ref> The peaking of world hydrocarbon production (peak oil) may lead to significant changes, and require sustainable methods of production.<ref>Peak Oil: the threat to our food security Archived July 14, 2009, at the Wayback Machine retrieved 28 May 2009</ref> One vision of a sustainable energy future involves all human structures on the earth's surface (i.e., buildings, vehicles and roads) doing artificial photosynthesis (using sunlight to split water as a source of hydrogen and absorbing carbon dioxide to make fertilizer) efficiently than plants.<ref>Faunce TA, Lubitz W, Rutherford AW, MacFarlane D, Moore, GF, Yang P, Nocera DG, Moore TA, Gregory DH, Fukuzumi S, Yoon KB, Armstrong FA, Wasielewski MR, Styring S. ‘Energy and Environment Case for a Global Project on Artificial Photosynthesis.’ Energy and Environmental Science 2013, 6 (3), 695 - 698 doi:10.1039/C3EE00063J Styring, Stenbjorn; Wasielewski, Michael R.; Armstrong, Fraser A.; Yoon, Kyung Byung; Fukuzumi, Shunichi; Gregory, Duncan H.; Moore, Tom A.; Nocera, Daniel G.; Yang, Peidong; Moore, Gary F.; MacFarlane, Douglas; Rutherford, A. W. (Bill); Lubitz, Wolfgang; Faunce, Thomas A. (2013-02-20). "Energy and environment policy case for a global project on artificial photosynthesis". Energy & Environmental Science. 6 (3): 695–698. doi:10.1039/C3EE00063J. (accessed 13 March 2013)</ref>

With contemporary space industry's economic activity<ref name="Bromberg2000-1">Joan Lisa Bromberg (October 2000). NASA and the Space Industry. JHU Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8018-6532-9. Retrieved 10 June 2011.</ref><ref name="Schrogl2010">Kai-Uwe Schrogl (2 August 2010). Yearbook on Space Policy 2008/2009: Setting New Trends. Springer. p. 49. ISBN 978-3-7091-0317-3. Retrieved 10 June 2011.</ref> and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.<ref>Propulsion Techniques: Action and Reaction edited by Peter J. Turchi. p341</ref><ref>Climate Change: The Science, Impacts and Solutions. Edited by A. Pittock</ref> Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power for use on Earth. Space-based solar power has been in research since the early 1970s. Space-based solar power would require construction of collector structures in space. The advantage over ground-based solar power is higher intensity of light, and no weather to interrupt power collection.

Energy technology

Energy technology is an interdisciplinary engineering science having to do with the efficient, safe, environmentally friendly, and economical extraction, conversion, transportation, storage, and use of energy, targeted towards yielding high efficiency whilst skirting side effects on humans, nature, and the environment.

For people, energy is an overwhelming need, and as a scarce resource, it has been an underlying cause of political conflicts and wars. The gathering and use of energy resources can be harmful to local ecosystems and may have global outcomes.

Energy is also the capacity to do work. We can get energy from food. Energy can be of different forms such as kinetic, potential, mechanical, heat, light etc. Energy is required for individuals and the whole society for lighting, heating, cooking, running, industries, operating transportation and so forth. Basically there are two types of energy depending on the source s they are; 1.Renewable Energy Sources 2.Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Interdisciplinary fields

As an interdisciplinary science Energy technology is linked with many interdisciplinary fields in sundry, overlapping ways.

Physics, for thermodynamics and nuclear physics
Chemistry for fuel, combustion, air pollution, flue gas, battery technology and fuel cells.
Electrical engineering
Engineering, often for fluid energy machines such as combustion engines, turbines, pumps and compressors.
Geography, for geothermal energy and exploration for resources.
Mining, for petrochemical and fossil fuels.
Agriculture and forestry, for sources of renewable energy.
Meteorology for wind and solar energy.
Water and Waterways, for hydropower.
Waste management, for environmental impact.
Transportation, for energy-saving transportation systems.
Environmental studies, for studying the effect of energy use and production on the environment, nature and climate change.
(Lighting Technology), for Interior and Exterior Natural as well as Artificial Lighting Design, Installations, and Energy Savings
(Energy Cost/Benefit Analysis), for Simple Payback and Life Cycle Costing of Energy Efficiency/Conservation Measures Recommended

Electrical engineering

Electric power engineering deals with the production and use of electrical energy, which can entail the study of machines such as generators, electric motors and transformers. Infrastructure involves substations and transformer stations, power lines and electrical cable. Load management and power management over networks have meaningful sway on overall energy efficiency. Electric heating is also widely used and researched.

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics deals with the fundamental laws of energy conversion and is drawn from theoretical Physics.

Thermal and chemical energy

Thermal and chemical energy are intertwined with chemistry and environmental studies. Combustion has to do with burners and chemical engines of all kinds, grates and incinerators along with their energy efficiency, pollution and operational safety.

Exhaust gas purification technology aims to lessen air pollution through sundry mechanical, thermal and chemical cleaning methods. Emission control technology is a field of process and chemical engineering. Boiler technology deals with the design, construction and operation of steam boilers and turbines (also used in nuclear power generation, see below), drawn from applied mechanics and materials engineering.

Energy conversion has to do with internal combustion engines, turbines, pumps, fans and so on, which are used for transportation, mechanical energy and power generation. High thermal and mechanical loads bring about operational safety worries which are dealt with through many branches of applied engineering science.

Nuclear energy

Nuclear technology deals with nuclear power production from nuclear reactors, along with the processing of nuclear fuel and disposal of radioactive waste, drawing from applied nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry and radiation science.

Nuclear power generation has been politically controversial in many countries for several decades but the electrical energy produced through nuclear fission is of worldwide importance.<ref>"The West's Nuclear Mistake". www.msn.com. Retrieved 2021-12-08.</ref> There are high hopes that fusion technologies will one day replace most fission reactors but this is still a research area of nuclear physics.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy has many branches.

Wind power

Wind turbines on Inner Mongolian grassland

Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity by connecting a spinning rotor to a generator. Wind turbines draw energy from atmospheric currents and are designed using aerodynamics along with knowledge taken from mechanical and electrical engineering. The wind passes across the aerodynamic rotor blades, creating an area of higher pressure and an area of lower pressure on either side of the blade. The forces of lift and drag are formed due to the difference in air pressure. The lift force is stronger than the drag force; therefore the rotor, which is connected to a generator, spins. The energy is then created due to the change from the aerodynamic force to the rotation of the generator.<ref>"How Do Wind Turbines Work?". Energy.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-10.</ref>

Being recognized as one of the most efficient renewable energy sources, wind power is becoming more and more relevant and used in the world.<ref>"BiblioBoard". openresearchlibrary.org. Retrieved 2020-12-10.</ref> Wind power does not use any water in the production of energy making it a good source of energy for areas without much water. Wind energy could also be produced even if the climate changes in line with current predictions, as it relies solely on wind.<ref>Ledec, George C.; Rapp, Kennan W.; Aiello, Roberto G. (2011-12-01). "Greening the Wind : Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development". hdl:10986/2388. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)</ref>

Geothermal

Deep within the Earth, is an extreme heat producing layer of molten rock called magma.<ref>"How Geothermal Energy Works | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Retrieved 2020-12-14.</ref> The very high temperatures from the magma heats nearby groundwater. There are various technologies that have been developed in order to benefit from such heat, such as using different types of power plants (dry, flash or binary), heat pumps, or wells.<ref>"Geothermal Energy". National Geographic Society. 2012-11-20. Retrieved 2020-12-14.</ref> These processes of harnessing the heat incorporate an infrastructure which has in one form or another a turbine which is spun by either the hot water or the steam produced by it.<ref>US EPA, OAR. "Geothermal Energy". archive.epa.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-14.</ref> The spinning turbine, being connected to a generator, produces energy. A more recent innovation involves the use of shallow closed-loop systems that pump heat to and from structures by taking advantage of the constant temperature of soil around 10 feet deep.<ref>"Where is Geothermal Energy Used?". GreenFire Energy Inc. Retrieved 2020-12-14.</ref>

Hydropower

Hydropower draws mechanical energy from rivers, ocean waves and tides. Civil engineering is used to study and build dams, tunnels, waterways and manage coastal resources through hydrology and geology. A low speed water turbine spun by flowing water can power an electrical generator to produce electricity.

Bioenergy

Bioenergy deals with the gathering, processing and use of biomasses grown in biological manufacturing, agriculture and forestry from which power plants can draw burning fuel. Ethanol, methanol (both controversial) or hydrogen for fuel cells can be had from these technologies and used to generate electricity.

Enabling technologies

Heat pumps and Thermal energy storage are classes of technologies that can enable the utilization of renewable energy sources that would otherwise be inaccessible due to a temperature that is too low for utilization or a time lag between when the energy is available and when it is needed. While enhancing the temperature of available renewable thermal energy, heat pumps have the additional property of leveraging electrical power (or in some cases mechanical or thermal power) by using it to extract additional energy from a low quality source (such as seawater, lake water, the ground, the air, or waste heat from a process).

Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to interseasonal, and can involve storage of sensible energy (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or latent energy (i.e. through phase changes of a medium, such between water and slush or ice). Short-term thermal storages can be used for peak-shaving in district heating or electrical distribution systems. Kinds of renewable or alternative energy sources that can be enabled include natural energy (e.g. collected via solar-thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter's cold), waste energy (e.g. from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (e.g. as seasonally from hydropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The Drake Landing Solar Community (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative. borehole thermal energy storage allows the community to get 97% of its year-round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs, which most of the heat collected in summer.<ref>Wong, Bill (June 28, 2011), "Drake Landing Solar Community" Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine, IDEA/CDEA District Energy/CHP 2011 Conference, Toronto, pp. 1–30, retrieved 21 April 2013</ref><ref>Wong B., Thornton J. (2013). Integrating Solar & Heat Pumps. Renewable Heat Workshop.</ref> Types of storages for sensible energy include insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow lined pits that are insulated on top. Some types of storage are capable of storing heat or cold between opposing seasons (particularly if very large), and some storage applications require inclusion of a heat pump. Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called phase-change materials (PCMs).

References

Sources

Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M.V. Ramana et al. The Frontiers of Energy, Nature Energy, Vol 1, 11 January 2016.
Serra, J. "Alternative Fuel Resource Development", Clean and Green Fuels Fund, (2006).
Bilgen, S. and K. Kaygusuz, Renewable Energy for a Clean and Sustainable Future, Energy Sources 26, 1119 (2004).
Energy analysis of Power Systems, UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 57 (2004).
Silvestre B. S., Dalcol P. R. T. (2009). "Geographical proximity and innovation: Evidences from the Campos Basin oil & gas industrial agglomeration — Brazil". Technovation. 29 (8): 546–561. doi:10.1016/j.technovation.2009.01.003.

Journals

External links

Bureau of Land Management 2012 Renewable Energy Priority Projects
Energypedia - a wiki about renewable energies in the context of development cooperation
Hidden Health and Environmental Costs Of Energy Production and Consumption In U.S.
IEA-ECES - International Energy Agency - Energy Conservation through Energy Conservation programme.
IEA HPT TCP - International Energy Agency - Technology Collaboration Programme on Heatpumping Technologies.
IEA-SHC - International Energy Agency - Solar Heating and Cooling programme.
SDH - Solar District Heating Platform. (European Union)

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v t e Energy
Outline History Index
Fundamental concepts	Energy Units Conservation of energy Energetics Energy transformation Energy condition Energy transition Energy level Energy system Mass Negative mass Mass–energy equivalence Power Thermodynamics Quantum thermodynamics Laws of thermodynamics Thermodynamic system Thermodynamic state Thermodynamic potential Thermodynamic free energy Irreversible process Thermal reservoir Heat transfer Heat capacity Volume (thermodynamics) Thermodynamic equilibrium Thermal equilibrium Thermodynamic temperature Isolated system Entropy Free entropy Entropic force Negentropy Work Exergy Enthalpy
Types	Kinetic Internal Thermal Potential Gravitational Elastic Electric potential energy Mechanical Interatomic potential Quantum potential Electrical Magnetic Ionization Radiant Binding Nuclear binding energy Gravitational binding energy Quantum chromodynamics binding energy Dark Quintessence Phantom Negative Chemical Rest Sound energy Surface energy Vacuum energy Zero-point energy Quantum potential Quantum fluctuation
Energy carriers	Radiation Enthalpy Mechanical wave Sound wave Fuel Fossil Oil Hydrogen Hydrogen fuel Heat Latent heat Work Electricity Battery Capacitor
Primary energy	Fossil fuel Coal Petroleum Natural gas Nuclear fuel Natural uranium Radiant energy Solar Wind Hydropower Marine energy Geothermal Bioenergy Gravitational energy
Energy system components	Energy engineering Oil refinery Electricity delivery Electric power Fossil fuel power station Cogeneration Integrated gasification combined cycle Nuclear power Nuclear power plant Radioisotope thermoelectric generator Solar power Photovoltaic system Concentrated solar power Solar thermal energy Solar power tower Solar furnace Wind power Wind farm Airborne wind energy Hydropower Hydroelectricity Wave farm Tidal power Geothermal power Biomass
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Misc.	Jevons paradox Carbon footprint
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v t e Wind power
Wind power	High-altitude History By country Land vehicles Offshore Turbines on public display Windmill Panemone
Wind farms	Community-owned Farms by country Offshore farms by country Onshore farms
Wind turbines	Aerodynamics Airborne Crosswind kite Design Floating Nacelle Pitch bearing QBlade Small Unconventional Vertical-axis Savonius Darrieus Yaw system Yaw bearing Yaw drive
Wind power industry	Consulting companies Manufacturers Software
Manufacturers	Enercon GE Wind Energy including GE Offshore Wind Goldwind Nordex Senvion Siemens Gamesa Suzlon Vestas
Concepts	2020s in wind power research Betz's law Blade element momentum theory Capacity factor Energy return on investment Wind power forecasting Grid energy storage HVDC Intermittency Variability Laddermill Net energy gain Resource assessment Storage Subsidies Tip-speed ratio Virtual power plant Wind hybrid power systems Wind profile power law
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v t e Environmental technology
Appropriate technology Clean technology Environmental design Environmental impact assessment Sustainable development Sustainable technology
Pollution	Air pollution (control dispersion modeling) Industrial ecology Solid waste treatment Waste management Water (agricultural wastewater treatment industrial wastewater treatment sewage treatment waste-water treatment technologies water purification)
Sustainable energy	Efficient energy use Electrification Energy development Energy recovery Fuel (alternative fuel biofuel carbon-neutral fuel hydrogen technologies) List of energy storage projects Renewable energy commercialization transition Transportation (electric vehicle hybrid vehicle)
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