General knowledge
 | The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints. (August 2019) |
General knowledge is information that has been accumulated over time through various media and sources.<ref>"GENERAL KNOWLEDGE". Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved 2019-08-24.</ref> It excludes specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General knowledge is an essential component of crystallized intelligence. It is strongly associated with general intelligence and with openness to experience.<ref>T. C. Bates and A. Shieles. (2003). Crystallized Intelligence is a product of Speed and Drive for Experience: The Relationship of Inspection Time and Openness to g and Gc. Intelligence, 31, 275-287</ref>
Studies have found that people who are highly knowledgeable in a particular domain tend to be knowledgeable in many.<ref name="rolfhus&ackerman">Rolfhus, Eric L.; Ackerman, Phillip L. (1999). "Assessing individual differences in knowledge: Knowledge, intelligence, and related traits" (PDF). Journal of Educational Psychology. 91 (3): 511–526. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.511. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2019-12-25.</ref><ref name="ackerman2001">Ackerman, Phillip L.; Bowen, Kristy R.; Beier, Margaret E.; Kanfer, Ruth (2001). "Determinants of individual differences and gender differences in knowledge". Journal of Educational Psychology. 93 (4): 797–825. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.797.</ref> General knowledge is thought to be supported by long-term semantic memory ability.<ref>Smith, Amy M.; Hughes, Gregory I.; Davis, F. Caroline; Thomas, Ayanna K. (March 2019). "Acute stress enhances general-knowledge semantic memory". Hormones and Behavior. 109: 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.02.003. PMID 30742829. S2CID 72334918.</ref> General knowledge also supports schemata for textual understanding.<ref>An, Shuying (2013-01-01). "Schema Theory in Reading". Theory and Practice in Language Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.4304/tpls.3.1.130-134. ISSN 1799-2591. S2CID 26167875.</ref>
Individual differences
Intelligence
High scorers on tests of general knowledge tend to also score highly on intelligence tests. IQ has been found to robustly predict general knowledge scores even after accounting for differences in age, and five-factor model personality traits.<ref name=Furnham2006 /><ref name=chamorro /><ref name=Furnham2008>Furnham, Adrian; Swami, Viren; Arteche, Adriane; Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas (2008). "Cognitive ability, learning approaches and personality correlates of general knowledge". Educational Psychology. 28 (4): 427–437. doi:10.1080/01443410701727376. S2CID 144132702.</ref> However, many general knowledge tests are designed to create a normal distribution of answers, creating a bell-shaped curve.<ref>Stuart-Hamilton, Ian (6 April 2014). "What Constitutes General Knowledge?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2019-08-24.</ref>
General knowledge is also moderately associated with verbal ability, though only weakly or not at all with numerical and spatial ability.<ref name="rolfhus&ackerman" /> As with crystallized intelligence, general knowledge has been found to increase with age.<ref name=Furnham2007>Furnham, Adrian; Christopher, Andrew N.; Garwood, Jeanette; Martin, G. Neil (2007). "Approaches to learning and the acquisition of general knowledge". Personality and Individual Differences. 43 (6): 1563–1571. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.04.013.</ref>
Long-term semantic memory
General knowledge is stored as semantic memory.<ref name=":0">Glisky, Elizabeth L. (2007), Riddle, David R. (ed.), "Changes in Cognitive Function in Human Aging", Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms, Frontiers in Neuroscience, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9780849338182, PMID 21204355, retrieved 2019-08-24</ref> Most semantic memory is preserved through old age, though there are deficits in retrieval of certain specific words correlated with aging.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, stress or various emotional levels can negatively affect semantic memory retrieval.<ref name=":0" />
Personality
People high in general knowledge<ref>"How To Improve General Knowledge?". Quiz Beez. 9 October 2022.</ref> tend to be highly open to new experiences<ref name=Furnham2006>Furnham, Adrian; Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas (2006). "Personality, intelligence, and general knowledge". Learning and Individual Differences. 16: 79–90. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2005.07.002.</ref><ref name=chamorro>Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas; Furnham, Adrian; Ackerman, Phillip L. (2006). "Ability and personality correlates of general knowledge" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences. 41 (3): 419–429. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.036. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-26.</ref><ref name=Furnham2008 /><ref name=Furnham2007 /> and in typical intellectual engagement.<ref name=chamorro /><ref name=Furnham2008 /> The relationship between openness to experience and general knowledge remains robust even when IQ is taken into account.<ref name=Furnham2006 /><ref name=Furnham2008 /> People high in openness may be more motivated to engage in intellectual pursuits that increase their knowledge.<ref name=Furnham2008 /> Relationships between general knowledge and other five factor model traits tend to be weak and inconsistent. Though one study found that extraversion and neuroticism were negatively correlated with general knowledge,<ref name=chamorro /> others found that they were unrelated.<ref name=Furnham2006 /><ref name=Furnham2007 /> Inconsistent results have also been found for conscientiousness.<ref group="note"></ref>
Predictor of achievement
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. (April 2021) |
A number of studies have assessed whether performance on a general knowledge test can predict achievement in particular areas, namely in academics,<ref name=Furnham2009> Furnham, Adrian; Monsen, J. & Ahmetoglu (2009). "Typical intellectual engagement, Big Five personality traits, approaches to learning and cognitive ability predictors of academic performance". British Journal of Educational Psychology. 79 (4): 769–782. doi:10.1348/978185409X412147. PMID 19245744. </ref> proofreading,<ref name=proofreading> Furnham, Adrian (2010). "Proofreading as an index of crystallised intelligence". Educational Psychology. 30 (6): 735–754. doi:10.1080/01443410.2010.506005. S2CID 145775446.</ref> and creativity.<ref name=creativity> Batey, Mark; Furnham, Adrian; Safiullina, Xeniya (2010). "Intelligence, general knowledge and personality as predictors of creativity". Learning and Individual Differences. 20 (5): 532–535. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.04.008. </ref>
Academic achievement
General knowledge has been found to predict exam results in a study of British schoolchildren.<ref name=Furnham2009 /> The study examined cognitive ability and personality predictors of exam performance and found that general knowledge was positively correlated with GCSE English, mathematics, and overall exam results. General knowledge test scores predicted exam results, even after controlling for IQ, five-factor model personality traits, and learning styles.
Proofreading
General knowledge has been found to robustly predict proofreading skills in university students.<ref name=proofreading/> A study found that proofreading had a larger correlation with general knowledge than with general intelligence, verbal reasoning, or openness to experience. In a multiple regression analysis using general knowledge, general intelligence, verbal reasoning, five factor personality traits, and learning styles as predictors, only general knowledge was a significant predictor.
Creativity
General knowledge has been found to have weak associations with measures of creativity.<ref name=creativity/> In a study examining contributions of personality and intelligence to creativity, general knowledge was positively correlated with divergent thinking tests, but was unrelated to a biographical measure of creative achievement, self-rated creativity, or a composite measure of creativity. The relationship between general knowledge and divergent thinking became non-significant when controlling for fluid intelligence.
Game shows and quizzes
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Many game shows use general knowledge questions for entertainment purposes. Game shows such as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? and Fifteen to One centre their questions on general knowledge, while other shows focus questions more on specific subjects. Some shows ask questions both on specific subjects and on general knowledge, including Eggheads and Mastermind. In Mastermind, contestants choose their own "specialist subject" before answering general knowledge questions, whereas in Eggheads the subjects are chosen at random. The game show Jeopardy! tests contestants' knowledge.
See also
- IQ
- Intelligence
- High culture
- Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
- Cultural literacy
- Core Knowledge Foundation
- Upper ontology – Ontology applicable across domains of knowledge
Notes
References
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