Leadership

Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group, or organization to "lead", influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations.

"Leadership" is a contested term.<ref>

Grint, Keith (2005). Leadership: Limits and Possibilities. London: Palgrave. ISBN 9780333963876. Moral leadership is not the way to secure democracy, morality and justice because morality, like power and leadership is an essentially contested concept....^{[dead link]}
Western, Simon (2013). Leadership: A critical text. London: Sage. p. 26. ISBN 9781446294208. Leadership is a contested term with multiple meanings and diverse practical applications.

</ref> Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) North American versus European approaches.<ref>

Grosset, Serge (1970). Management: European and American Styles. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Retrieved 20 August 2023. </ref>

Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common and ethical task".<ref>Chemers, M. (1997). An integrative theory of leadership. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8058-2679-1.</ref>^{[page needed]}<ref name="Chin 2015">Chin, Roger (2015). "Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management". Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199–216. doi:10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037.</ref>^{[need quotation to verify]}—in other words, as an influential power-relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers").<ref>Northouse, Peter G. (2018). Leadership: Theory and Practice (8 ed.). California: Sage Publication. ISBN 9781506362298. ...some define leadership in terms of the power relationship that exists between leaders and followers.</ref> Some have challenged the more traditional managerial views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or authority), and instead advocate the complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within formal<ref>Washington, Marvin; Boal, Kimberly; Davis, John (18 February 2020). "Institutional Leadership: past, present, and future". In Greenwood, Royston; Oliver, Christine; Lawrence, Thomas B; Meyer, Renate E. (eds.). The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. SAGE Publications, Limited. pp. 719–733. ISBN 9781529712117.</ref> and informal roles.<ref>Goleman, D.; Boyatzis, R.E.; McKee, A. (2003). The New Leaders: Transforming the art of leadership. London: Sphere. Sphere. ISBN 9780751533811.</ref>^{[page needed]}^{[need quotation to verify]}

Studies of leadership have produced theories involving (for example) traits,<ref>Kirkpatrick, Shelley A.; Locke, Edwin A. (1991). "Leadership: Do traits matter?" (PDF). Academy of Management Executive. 5 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-27. </ref> situational interaction,<ref> Seyranian, Viviane (2010). "Interactionist Theories of Leadership". In Levine, John M; Hogg, Michael A. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations. Sage reference. Vol. 1. Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 458. ISBN 9781412942089. Retrieved 20 August 2023. Interactionist leadership scholars also have argued that trait-based or situational accounts of leadership ignore how a leader can affect a situation or how a situation may influence leaders. [...] Interactionist theories of leadership link person–situation variables in a network of multidirectional relationships that attempt to capture the evolving nature of leadership. </ref> function, behavior,<ref>Goldsmith, Marshall (2016). Dekel, Gil (ed.). "Leaders Make Values Visible". Design Toolbox.</ref> power, vision<ref>Saffold, Guy (2005). "Leadership Through Vision". Strategic Planning: Leadership through Vision. Nairobi: Evangel Publishing House. p. 137. ISBN 9789966201225. Retrieved 11 November 2021. ...leadership is about the future; and the future is about vision.</ref> and values,<ref>Richards, Dick; Engel, Sarah (2005) [1986]. "After the vision: suggestions to corporate visionaries and vision champions". In Adams, John D. (ed.). Transforming Leadership (2nd ed.). New York: Cosimo. p. 206. ISBN 9781596053656. Retrieved 11 November 2021.</ref>^{[need quotation to verify]} charisma, and intelligence,<ref> Riggio, Ronald E.; Murphy, Susan Elaine; Pirozzolo, Francis J., eds. (2001). Multiple Intelligences and Leadership. Organization and Management Series. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 9781135662431. Retrieved 20 August 2023. </ref> among others.<ref name="Chin 2015"/>

Historical views

The Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and the right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction.<ref> Guo, Xuezhi (2019). "Traditional Political Thought and Imperial Legacy". The Politics of the Core Leader in China: Culture, Institution, Legitimacy, and Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 139. ISBN 9781108480499. Retrieved 17 May 2019. The Mandate of Heaven implies that the legitimacy of political leadership as well as its leading figures come from not only their political power derived from their positions and de facto dominance in the leadership but also their roles in bringing voluntary compliance from the high-ranking leaders and the population at large.</ref>

Pro-aristocracy thinkers<ref>For example: Gupta, Ashok Kumar (1991). Emerging Pattern of Political Leadership: A Case Study of Punjab. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 12. ISBN 9788170992561. Retrieved 17 May 2019. The main theme of [José Ortega y Gasset's] theory of elite is that 'when the masses in a country believe that they can do without aristocracy, the nation inevitably declines. In their disillusionment the masses again turn to the new leadership and a new aristocracy emerges.'</ref> have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes.<ref> Marstiller, James K.; Joerding Fickeler, Jennifer (2005). The Power to Innovate: Rewiring the Minds of Individuals and Organizations. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. p. 169. ISBN 9781420835106. Retrieved 17 May 2019. Throughout the ages it was believed that leaders were born, that the ability to lead was somehow inherited through the blood. [...] In spite of many examples throughout history of blue-blood leadership ineptitude, birthright and competency became intertwined in the human psyche. This perception remained until the 20th century.</ref> Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.<ref>Cano, Librado F. (2010). Transformation Of An Individual Family Community Nation And The World. Trafford Publishing. p. 134. ISBN 9781426947667.</ref>

In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies".<ref>

Singh, Ravinder; Rani, Ajita (2017). Human Behaviour. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-946983-31-2. ...emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies, where the women rule.
Baym, Nina (1992). "Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Mother: A Biographical Speculation". Feminism and American Literary History: Essays. Women's studies / American literature. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 53. ISBN 9780813518558. Retrieved 23 July 2020. The image [...] is the Garden of Eden, the benign matriarchy.

</ref>

Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.
— P.K. Saxena<ref>Saxena, P.K. (2009). Principles of Management, A Modern Approach. New Delhi: Global India Publications PVT LTD. p. 30. ISBN 978-81-907941-5-2. Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.</ref>

Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader.
— Jia Lin, in commentary on Sun Tzu, Art of War<ref>Sun Tzu (2003). The Art of War: Complete Texts and Commentaries. Translated by Cleary, Thomas. Shambhala. ISBN 9781590300541.</ref>

Machiavelli's The Prince, written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep power.

Prior to the 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today—society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821.<ref>"leadership". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)</ref> Historically, industrialization, opposition to the ancien regime, and the phasing out of chattel slavery meant that some newly developing organizations (nation-state republics, commercial corporations) evolved a need for a new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers—thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership".<ref> Note the relative changes in terminology in American English since 1800: "leader, master, leadership—1800–2019". Google Books Ngram Viewer.</ref> The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain,<ref> For example: Wells, Carl (2012). Is Slavery Christian?. AuthorHouse. p. 71. ISBN 9781477274958. Retrieved 23 July 2020. Any of a dozen factors can make the position of master, employer, or leader, very difficult and frustrating. How refreshing it must be for a slave master, or employer, or leader to run into a person who treats him with respect whether he's present or absent, who works diligently at all times, who need not be watched like a hawk, who is a self-started with a tongue well under control: the Christian slave or worker! What honor to Christ is brought by such a slave or worker! Such a person's Christianity is real.</ref> but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed.

Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism—Lenin (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare this with servant leadership.<ref>Greenleaf, Robert K. (2002) [1977]. Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809105540. Retrieved 2014-07-21.</ref>

For a more general view on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the statesperson.

Theories

Early Western history

The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato's Republic<ref>Benjamin Jowett's translation of Plato's Republic does not use the word "leadership"; Plato discusses primarily a "guardian" class. See Plato (1892). The Dialogues of Plato translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-09-12.</ref> to Plutarch's Lives have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership<ref>Evans, Jules (2012-05-04). "What can business leaders learn from ancient philosophers?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-07.</ref> and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership".

A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton. In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited.

Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the University of Oxford) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903.<ref>See Donald Markwell (2013). "Instincts to lead": on leadership, peace, and education. Australia: Connor Court Publishing. ISBN 978-1-922168-70-2. OCLC 865544191.</ref>

Rise of alternative theories

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews<ref>

Bird, Charles (1940). Social Psychology. The Century Psychology Series. New York: Appleton-Century.
Stogdill, R. M. (1948). "Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature". Journal of Psychology. 25: 35–71. doi:10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362. PMID 18901913.
Mann, R. D. (1959). "A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups". Psychological Bulletin. 56 (4): 241–270. doi:10.1037/h0044587.

</ref> prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades.

Reemergence of trait theory

New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round-robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983">Kenny, D. A.; Zaccaro, S. J. (1983). "An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership". Journal of Applied Psychology. 68 (4): 678–685. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.678.</ref> Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following:

Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983"/>
Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as:

Intelligence<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986">Lord, R. G.; De Vader, C. L.; Alliger, G. M. (1986). "A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leader perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures". Journal of Applied Psychology. 71 (3): 402–410. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.402.</ref>
Adjustment<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
Extraversion<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
Conscientiousness<ref>
- Arvey, R. D.; Rotundo, M.; Johnson, W.; Zhang, Z.; McGue, M. (2006). "The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors". The Leadership Quarterly. 17: 1–20. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.333.3080. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.009.
- Tagger, S.; Hackett, R.; Saha, S. (1999). "Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes". Personnel Psychology. 52 (4): 899–926. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00184.x.
</ref><ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002">Judge, T. A.; Bono, J. E.; Ilies, R.; Gerhardt, M. W. (2002). "Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review". Journal of Applied Psychology. 87 (4): 765–780. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765. PMID 12184579.</ref>
Openness to experience<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/><ref>Kickul, J.; Neuman, G. (2000). "Emergence leadership behaviors: The function of personality and cognitive ability in determining teamwork performance and KSAs". Journal of Business and Psychology. 15: 27–51. doi:10.1023/A:1007714801558. S2CID 141377956.</ref>
General self-efficacy<ref>Smith, J. A.; Foti, R. J. (1998). "A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence". The Leadership Quarterly. 9 (2): 147–160. doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9.</ref><ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007"/>

While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007">Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). "Trait-based perspectives of leadership". American Psychologist. 62 (1): 6–16. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.475.9808. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.1.6. PMID 17209675. S2CID 2762932.</ref>

Specifically, Stephen Zaccaro noted that trait theories still:<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007"/>

focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "Big Five" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-solving skills
fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
do not distinguish between the leadership attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences
do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership

Attribute pattern approach

Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach.<ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007">Foti, R. J.; Hauenstein, N. M. A. (2007). "Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness". Journal of Applied Psychology. 92 (2): 347–355. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.347. PMID 17371083.</ref><ref>

Zaccaro, S. J.; Gulick, L. M. V.; Khare, V. P. (2008). "Personality and leadership". In Hoyt, C. J.; Goethals, G. R.; Forsyth, D. R. (eds.). Leadership at the crossroads. Vol. 1. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. pp. 13–29.
Gershenoff, A. G.; Foti, R. J. (2003). "Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination". Small Group Research. 34 (2): 170–196. doi:10.1177/1046496402250429. S2CID 145054262.
Smith, J. A.; Foti, R. J. (1998). "A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence". Leadership Quarterly. 9 (2): 147–160. doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9.

</ref><ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000">Mumford, M. D.; Zaccaro, S. J.; Harding, F. D.; Jacobs, T. O.; Fleishman, E. A. (2000). "Leadership skills for a changing world solving complex social problems". The Leadership Quarterly. 11: 11–35. doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00041-7.</ref> In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.<ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000"/><ref>Magnusson, D. (1995). "Holistic interactionism: A perspective for research on personality development". In Pervin, L. A.; John, O. P. (eds.). Handbook of personality: Theory and research. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 219–247.</ref> In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes.

Behavioral and style theories

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.<ref>Spillane, James P.; Halverson, Richard; Diamond, John B. (2004). "Towards a theory of leadership practice". Journal of Curriculum Studies. 36 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1080/0022027032000106726. S2CID 3094291. </ref> David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.<ref>Horton, Thomas (1992). The CEO Paradox. New York. ISBN 9780814450932.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)^{[page needed]}</ref>

Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.<ref>Lewin, Kurt; Lippitt, Ronald; White, Ralph (1939). "Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates". The Journal of Social Psychology: 271–301. </ref>

In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.<ref>"Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples" (2017)^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.<ref>AAmodt (2015)^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]}

The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.<ref>Stoker (2016)^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]}

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.<ref>Blake, R.; Mouton, J. (1964). The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.</ref>

Positive reinforcement

B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.<ref>Miltenberger, R.G. (2004). Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.</ref> The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.<ref>McLeod, Saul (2007). "Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)". Simply Psychology.</ref>

Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.<ref>Lussier, R. N.; Achua, C. F. (2010). Leadership, Theory, Application, & Skill Development (4th ed.). Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning.</ref> Empirical research covering the last 20 years^{[needs update]} suggests that applying reinforcement theory leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.

Situational and contingency theories

Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.<ref>

Spencer, Herbert (1841). The Study of Sociology. New York, NY: D. A. Appleton. ISBN 978-0-314-71117-5.
Heifetz, Ronald (1994). Leadership without Easy Answers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-674-51858-2.

</ref> This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."<ref>Hemphill, John K. (1949). Situational Factors in Leadership. Columbus: Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research.</ref>

Some theorists synthesized the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,<ref>Lewin, Kurt; Lippitt, Ronald; White, Ralph (1939). "Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates". The Journal of Social Psychology: 271–301.</ref> academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.<ref>Van Wormer, Katherine S.; Besthorn, Fred H.; Keefe, Thomas (2007). Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Macro Level: Groups, Communities, and Organizations. US: Oxford University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-19-518754-0.</ref> Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called contingency theory. Three contingency leadership theories are the Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory.

The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).<ref>Fiedler, Fred E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. McGraw-Hill: Harper and Row Publishers Inc.</ref> According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton<ref>Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-3266-6.</ref> and later with Arthur Jago,<ref>Vroom, Victor H.; Jago, Arthur G. (1988). The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-615030-5.</ref> developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations. They used this in a normative decision model in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.<ref>Vroom, Victor H.; Sternberg, Robert J. (2002). "Theoretical Letters: The person versus the situation in leadership". Leadership. 13 (3): 301–323. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00101-7.</ref> This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.<ref>Lorsch, J.W. (Spring 1974). "Book Review: Leadership and Decision Making by Vroom & Yetton". MIT Sloan Management Review. 15 (3): 100.</ref>

The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom.<ref>House, Robert J. (1971). "A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness". Administrative Science Quarterly. 16 (3): 321–339. doi:10.2307/2391905. JSTOR 2391905.</ref> According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance".<ref>House, Robert J. (1996). "Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory". Leadership Quarterly. 7 (3): 323–352. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90024-7.</ref> The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.

Functional theory

Functional leadership theory<ref>

Hackman, J.R.; Walton, R.E. (1986). "Leading groups in organizations". In Goodman, P. S.; et al. (eds.). Designing influential workgroups.
McGrath, 1962^{[full citation needed]}
Adair, 1988^{[full citation needed]}
Kouzes & Posner, 1995^{[full citation needed]}

</ref>^{[full citation needed]} addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.<ref>

Fleishman et al., 1991^{[full citation needed]}
Hackman & Wageman, 2005^{[full citation needed]}
Hackman, J.R.; Walton, R.E. (1986). "Leading groups in organizations". In Goodman, P. S.; et al. (eds.). Designing influential workgroups.

</ref>^{[full citation needed]} While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership,<ref>Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well.<ref>Zaccaro, 2001^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers<ref>

Kozlowski et al. (1996)^{[full citation needed]}
Zaccaro et al. (2001)^{[full citation needed]}
Hackman, J.R.; Walton, R.E. (1986). "Leading groups in organizations". In Goodman, P. S.; et al. (eds.). Designing influential workgroups.
Hackman & Wageman (2005)^{[full citation needed]}
morge (2005)^{[full citation needed]}
Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006)^{[full citation needed]}

</ref>^{[full citation needed]} observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work.

Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure.<ref>Fleishman (1953)^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.

Integrated psychological theory

The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership.

Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011).<ref name=Scouller>Scouller, James (2011). The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill. Cirencester: Management Books 2000. ISBN 9781852526818.</ref> Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively.<ref name="Scouller" group=""></ref>^: 34–35 He pointed out, for example, that:

Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.
An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances.
Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears, or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology.
None of the older theories successfully addressed the challenge of developing "leadership presence"—that certain "something" in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust, and makes followers want to work with them.

Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership:

The first two—public and private leadership—are "outer" or behavioral levels. These behaviors address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; and (4) individual selection and motivation. Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. Private leadership covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one-to-one.
The third—personal leadership—is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, know-how, and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical know-how and skill, (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people, which is the basis of servant leadership, and (3) Psychological self-mastery, the foundation for authentic leadership.

Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation.<ref name="Scouller" group=""></ref>^{: 137–237}

Transactional and transformational theories

Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: transactional which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.<ref>

Bass, B. M.; Avolio, B. J.; Atwater, L. E. (1996). "The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women". Applied Psychology: An International Review. 45: 5–34. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00847.x.
Bass, B. M.; Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

</ref>

The transactional leader<ref name="Burns">Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row Publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0060105884.</ref> is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

Leader–member exchange theory

Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process,<ref>Graen, G. B.; Novak, M. A.; Sommerkamp, P. (1982). "The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 30 (1): 109–131. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(82)90236-7.</ref> which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model.<ref>Dansereau, F.; Graen, G.; Haga, W. J. (1975). "A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 13 (1): 46–78. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7.</ref> Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.<ref name="Howell, Jon P.">Howell, Jon P. (2012). Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. pp. 16–17. ISBN 9780203103210.</ref> LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader.<ref name=autogenerated1>Howell, Jon P. (2012). Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. p. 17. ISBN 9780203103210.</ref>

In-group members

In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/> In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests.

Out-group members

Out-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/>

Emotions

Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process.<ref>George, J. M. (2000). "Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence". Human Relations. 53 (8): 1027–1055. doi:10.1177/0018726700538001. S2CID 145349886.</ref> A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:<ref name=cote>Sy, T.; Cote, S.; Saavedra, R. (2005). "The contagious leader: Impact of the leader's mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (2): 295–305. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295. PMID 15769239.</ref>

The mood of individual group members: Members of groups whose leaders are in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. Leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of emotional contagion.<ref name=cote/> Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers.<ref>Bono, J. E.; Ilies, R. (2006). "Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion". The Leadership Quarterly. 17 (4): 317–334. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.008.</ref>
The affective tone of the group: Group affective tone represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.<ref name=cote/>
Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy: Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.<ref name=cote/>

In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.<ref name=george>George, J. M. (2006). "Leader Positive Mood and Group Performance: The Case of Customer Service". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 25 (9): 778–794. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01775.x.</ref>

Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.<ref>Dasborough, M. T. (2006). "Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors". The Leadership Quarterly. 17 (2): 163–178. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.004.</ref> Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations.<ref name=george/>

Neo-emergent theory

The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme<ref>Sadler, Philip (2003). "The development process". Leadership. MBA masterclass series (2 ed.). London: Kogan Page Publishers. p. 108. ISBN 9780749439194. Retrieved 15 December 2019. Templeton College has developed a course for very senior managers, known as the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme.</ref>) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of information by the leader or by other stakeholders,<ref> Ola, Bolarinde (2017). "A Critique of Conceptual Leadership Styles'". In Godbole, Prasad; Burke, Derek; Aylott, Jill (eds.). Why Hospitals Fail: Between Theory and Practice. Cham (Switzerland): Springer International Publishing. p. 59. ISBN 9783319562247. Retrieved 15 December 2019. Neo-emergent theory describes the use of intelligent information management to account for stewardship to benefit the leader. The practice is widespread, where for example, a leader or other stakeholders use sponsored advertisements, press releases and blogs on social media to create a good impression of leadership.</ref> not through the actions of the leader.^{[citation needed]} In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome.<ref>Palmer, Michael A. (1988). "Lord Nelson: Master of Command". Naval War College Review. 41 (1): 105–116. JSTOR 44636707. Retrieved June 20, 2021 – via JSTOR.</ref> In modern society, various media outlets, including the press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like royal lineage, which once stood as a substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities.

Constructivist analysis

Some constructivists question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".<ref>

Elgie, Robert (2015). Studying Political Leadership: Foundations and Contending Accounts. Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership. Springer (published 2016). ISBN 9781137347084. Retrieved 15 December 2019. [...] some constructivists [...] question whether any such thing as leadership exists out there in the world. So for Gemmill and Oakley (2002), leadership is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs. For Spoelstra (2013), leadership is an invisible, non-objective phenomenon.
Vasconcelos e Sá, Jorge (2012). There is no leadership: only effective management: Lessons from Lee's Perfest Battle, Xenophon's Cyrus the Great and the practice of the best managers in the world. Porto: Vida Economica Editorial. p. 19. ISBN 9789727886012. Retrieved 15 December 2019. [...] to ask what is leadership about [...] is a false question. The right question is: what is effective management?

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Leadership emergence

Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders.

Many personality characteristics are reliably associated with leadership emergence.<ref name=":0">Forsyth, Donelson (2010). Group Dynamics. Belmont, California: Wadsworth.</ref> The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring, and social motivation.<ref name=":0" /> Other areas of study in relation to how and why leaders emerge include narcissistic traits, absentee leaders, and participation^[vague]. Today's sophisticated research methods look at personality characteristics in combination to determine patterns of leadership emergence.<ref name=":1" />

Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela share traits that an average person does not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.<ref>Aamodt, M.G. (2010). I/O applications workbook: Industrial/organizational psychology an applied approach. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.</ref> No research has found a “leadership gene”; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.<ref>Law, J. R. (1996). Rising to the occasion: foundations, processes, and outcomes of emergent leadership.^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Using a large international sample researchers found three factors that motivate leaders: affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).<ref>Chan, K.; Drasgow, F. (2001). "Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: Understanding the motivation to lead". Journal of Applied Psychology. 86 (3): 481–498. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.481. PMID 11419808.</ref>

Assertiveness

The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear: individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.<ref>Ames, Daniel R.; Flynn, Francis J. (2007). "What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (2): 307–324. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307. PMID 17279851.</ref>

Authenticity

Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.<ref>Ilies, Remus; Morgeson, Frederick P.; Nahrgang, Jennifer D. (2005-06-01). "Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader–follower outcomes". The Leadership Quarterly. 16 (3): 373–394. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.318.5548. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002. ISSN 1048-9843. Archived from the original on 2017-02-16. Retrieved 2017-02-16.</ref>

Big Five personality factors

Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/> However, introversion–extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence; specifically, leaders tend to be high in extroversion.<ref name=":1" /> Introversion–extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily among those in the Big Five Traits.<ref name=":1" /> Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/>

Birth order

Those born first in their families, and only children, are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative.<ref name=":0" />

Character strengths

Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.<ref>Matthews, Michael D.; Eid, Jarle; Kelly, Dennis; Bailey, Jennifer K. S.; Peterson, Christopher (2006). "Character strengths and virtues of developing military leaders: An international comparison". Military Psychology. 18 (Suppl): S57–S68. doi:10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_5. S2CID 144181852.</ref>

Dominance

Individuals with dominant personalities (they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way) are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.<ref>Smith, Jeffrey A.; Foti, Roseanne J. (1998). "A pattern approach to leader emergence". The Leadership Quarterly. 9 (2): 147–160. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90002-9.</ref>

Emotional intelligence

Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.<ref name=":0" /> Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref>Goleman, Daniel; Boyatzis, Richard E.; McKee, Annie (2003). New leaders. Sphere. ISBN 9780751533811. OCLC 891670377.</ref>

Intelligence

Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref name=":0" /> Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.<ref>Stogdill, Ralph Melvin; Bass, Bernard M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: theory, research, and managerial applications. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780029015001. OCLC 959443394.</ref> However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed in intelligence the prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests, and values<ref>Simonton, Dean K. (1985). "Intelligence and personal influence in groups: Four nonlinear models". Psychological Review. 92 (4): 532–547. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.532.</ref>

Self-efficacy for leadership

An individual's belief in their ability to lead is associated with an increased willingness to accept a leadership role and find success in its pursuit.<ref>Hoyt, C. L.; Blascovich, J. (2016-07-26). "Leadership Efficacy and Women Leaders' Responses to Stereotype Activation". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 10 (4): 595–616. doi:10.1177/1368430207084718. S2CID 53406267.</ref>

There are no set conditions for this characteristic to become emergent. However, it must be sustained by an individual's belief that they have the ability to learn and improve it with time. Individuals partly evaluate their own capabilities by observing others; working with a superior who is seen as an effective leader may help the individual develop a belief that he or she can perform in a similar manner.<ref>Paglis, L.L.; Green, S.G. (2002-03-01). "Leadership Self-Efficacy and Managers' Motivation for Leading Change". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 23 (2): 215–35. doi:10.1002/job.137.</ref>

Self-monitoring

Individuals who closely manage and adjust their behavior based on the social context, often referred to as high self-monitors, have a greater tendency to assume leadership roles within a group. This propensity is attributed to their heightened interest in elevating their status and their readiness to conform their actions to match the requirements of the given situation.<ref>Bedeian, Arthur G.; Day, David V. (2004). "Can chameleons lead?". The Leadership Quarterly. 15 (5): 687–718. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.07.005. Retrieved 2017-02-16.</ref>

Social motivation

People who exhibit both a drive for achievement and a desire for social connections tend to participate actively in group-based efforts to solve problems. Additionally, they have a higher likelihood of being chosen as leaders within these groups.<ref>Sorrentino, Richard M.; Field, Nigel (1986). "Emergent leadership over time: The functional value of positive motivation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 50 (6): 1091–1099. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1091.</ref>

Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits

A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.<ref>Rosenthal, Seth A.; Pittinsky, Todd L. (2006). "Narcissistic Leadership". The Leadership Quarterly. 17 (6): 617–633. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005.</ref>

Absentee leader

Existing research has shown that absentee leaders—those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and who are marginally engaging with their role—are actually worse than destructive leaders, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.<ref>Gregory, Scott (2018-03-30). "The Most Common Type of Incompetent Leader". Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2020-09-23.</ref>

Willingness to Participate

A willingness to participate in a group can indicate a person's interest as well as their willingness to take responsibility for how the group performs.<ref name=":1" /> Those who do not say much during a group meeting are less likely to emerge as a leader than those who speak up.<ref name=":1" /> There is however some debate over whether the quality of participation in a group matters more than the quantity.

A hypothesis termed the ‘babble effect’ or the ‘babble hypothesis’ has been studied as a factor in the emergence of leaders.<ref name=":2">MacLaren, Neil G.; Yammarino, Francis J.; Dionne, Shelley D.; Sayama, Hiroki; Mumford, Michael D.; Connelly, Shane; Martin, Robert W.; Mulhearn, Tyler J.; Todd, E. Michelle; Kulkarni, Ankita; Cao, Yiding (October 2020). "Testing the babble hypothesis: Speaking time predicts leader emergence in small groups". The Leadership Quarterly. 31 (5): 101409. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101409. S2CID 213370303.</ref> It posits that leader emergence is highly correlated with the quantity of speaking time—specifically, those who speak a lot in a group setting are more likely to become a group leader.<ref>Mast, Marianne Schmid; Hall, Judith A. (2004). "Who Is the Boss and Who Is Not? Accuracy of Judging Status". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. 28 (3): 145–165. doi:10.1023/B:JONB.0000039647.94190.21. ISSN 0191-5886. S2CID 54492090.</ref><ref name=":2" />

The quantity of participation is more important that the quality of these contributions when it comes to leader emergence.<ref name=":1" /> However, some studies indicate that there must be some element of quality combined with quantity to support leader emergence. Thus, while sheer quantity does matter to leadership, when the contributions made are also of high-quality leader emergence is further facilitated.<ref>Jones, Eric E.; Kelly, Janice R. (2007). "Contributions to a group discussion and perceptions of leadership: Does quantity always count more than quality?". Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice. 11 (1): 15–30. doi:10.1037/1089-2699.11.1.15. ISSN 1930-7802.</ref>

Leadership styles

A leadership style is a leader's way of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership.<ref>

Hariman, Robert (1995). Political Style. U. of Chicago Press.
Salazar, Philippe-Joseph (2009). L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies politiques De La Domination. Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

</ref>

Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The best style is one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.<ref name=Lewin>Lewin, K.; Lippitt, R.; White, R. K. (1939). "Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates". Journal of Social Psychology. 10 (2): 271–301. doi:10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366.</ref>

A field in which leadership style has gained attention is that of military science, which expresses a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.<ref>Headquarters, Department of the Army (2006), Army Leadership: Competent, Confident, and Agile (FM 6-22), Washington, D.C., p. 18{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Publication available at Army Knowledge Online and General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine Digital Library.</ref>

Autocratic or authoritarian

Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.

Autocratic leaders do not ask for or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. Autocratic management can be been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group.<ref name=Lewin/>

Participative or democratic

The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing decision-making abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social equality. This has also been called shared leadership.

Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership

In laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the subordinates. (The phrase laissez-faire is French and literally means "let them do"). Subordinates are given the right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles, and are given a high degree of independence and freedom to formulate their own objectives and ways to achieve them..<ref>Samosudova, Natalia V. (2017). "Modern leadership and management methods for development organizations". MATEC Web of Conferences. 106 (8062): 08062. doi:10.1051/matecconf/201710608062.</ref>

Task-oriented

Template:Citations needed section Task-oriented leadership is a style characterized by a leader's concentration on the necessary tasks to achieve specific production objectives. Leaders following this approach emphasize the creation of systematic solutions for given problems or goals, ensuring strict adherence to deadlines, and achieving targeted outcomes.

Unlike leaders who prioritize accommodating group members, those with a task-oriented approach concentrate on obtaining precise solutions to fulfill production aims. Consequently, they are skilled at ensuring timely goal attainment, although the well-being of their group members might be compromised. These leaders maintain an unwavering focus on both the overall goal and the assigned tasks for each team member.

Relationship-oriented

Relationship-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader focuses on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.<ref>Griffin, Ronald J. Ebert, Ricky W. (2010). Business essentials (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-13-705349-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</ref> Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done.

Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer.

Paternalism

Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the members.<ref name="Aycan">Aycan, Z. (2006). "Paternalism: Towards conceptual refinement and operationalization". In Kim, U.; Yang, S.; Hwang, K.-K. (eds.). Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 445–446.</ref> Members' choices are limited due to the rigid direction given by the leader.

The term paternalism is from the Latin pater meaning "father". The leader is most often a male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies.<ref name="Aycan"/>

Servant leadership

With the transformation into a knowledge society, the concept of servant leadership has become more popular, notably through modern technology management styles such as Agile. In this style, the leadership is externalized from the leader who serves as a guardian of the methodology and a "servant" or service provider to the team they lead. The cohesion and common direction of the team is dictated by a common culture, common goals and sometimes a specific methodology. This style is different from the laissez-faire in that the leader constantly works towards reaching the common goals as a team, but without giving explicit directions on tasks.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Transactional leadership refers to an exchange relationship between a leader and followers in which they both strive to meet their own self-interests. The term transactional leadership was introduced by Weber in 1947.<ref>Joana, Costa; Mariana, Pádua; Moreira, António Carrizo. "Leadership Styles and Innovation Management: What Is the Role of Human Capital?". Administrative Sciences.</ref> There are several forms of transactional leadership, the first being contingent reward, in which the leader outlines what the follower must do to be rewarded for the effort. The second form of transactional leadership is management-by-exception, in which the leader monitors performance of the follower and takes corrective action if standards are not met. Finally transactional leaders may be laissez-faire, avoiding taking any action at all. <ref name=":3">Bass, Bernard M. (1999). "Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational Leadership". European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology. 8: 10–11. doi:10.1080/135943299398410. S2CID 46265440 – via Taylor & Francis Online.</ref>

Transformational leadership refers to a leader who moves beyond immediate self interests using idealized influence (charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation (creativity), or individualized consideration. Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are when a leader is able to envision and communicate a mutually desirable future state. Intellectual stimulation is when a leader helps their followers to become more creative and innovative. Individualized consideration is when a leader pays attention to the developmental needs of their followers, supporting and coaching them.<ref name=":3" />

Leadership differences affected by gender

Another factor that affects leadership style is whether the leader is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an agentic leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent, and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact, and responding tactfully to others' comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful, and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations.<ref name=":1">Forsyth, D. R. (2009). Group dynamics. New York: Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0495599524.</ref> Meta-analyses show that people associate masculinity and agency more strongly with leadership than femininity and communion.<ref>Koenig, A. M.; Eagly, A. H.; Mitchell, A. A.; Ristikari, T. (2011). "Are Leader Stereotypes Masculine? A Meta-Analysis of Three Research Paradigms". Psychological Bulletin. 137 (4): 616–42. doi:10.1037/a0023557. PMID 21639606.</ref> Such stereotypes may have an effect on leadership evaluations of men and women.<ref>

Schyns, B. (2006). "The role of implicit leadership theories in the performance appraisals and promotion recommendations of leaders". Equal Opportunities International. 25 (3): 188–199. doi:10.1108/02610150610687836.
Koch, A. J.; D'Mello, S. D.; Sackett, P. R. (2015). "A Meta-Analysis of Gender Stereotypes and Bias in Experimental Simulations of Employment Decision Making". Journal of Applied Psychology. 100 (1): 128–161. doi:10.1037/a0036734. PMID 24865576.

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In times of crisis, women tend to lead better^{[clarification needed]} than men due to a show of empathy and confidence during briefings and other forms of communication. This has been critical during the COVID-19 pandemic as female governed states showed fewer deaths than male led states.<ref>Sergent, Kayla (2020). "Women's Leadership Is Associated With Fewer Deaths During the COVID-19 Crisis: Quantitative and Qualitative Analyses of United States Governors". Journal of Applied Psychology. 105 (8): 771–783. doi:10.1037/apl0000577. PMID 32614203. S2CID 220305944.</ref>

Barriers for non-western female leaders

Many things contribute to barriers to women's entrance into leadership. These barriers also differ among cultures. Despite the increasing number of female leaders in the world, only a small fraction come from non-westernized cultures. Although the barriers listed below may be more severe in non-western cultures, this does not imply that westernized cultures do not have these barriers as well. These subsections aim to compare the differences between the two:

Research and Literature

Although there have been many studies done on leadership in women, comparatively little research has been done on women in paternalistic cultures. The literature and research done on women emerging as leaders in a society that prefers men is lacking. This hinders women from knowing how to reach their leadership goals, and fails to educate men about this disparity.<ref>Tsui; Nifadkar; Ou (2007). "Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior Research: Advances, Gaps, and Recommendations". Journal of Management. 33 (3): 426–478. doi:10.1177/0149206307300818. S2CID 18344501.</ref>

Maternity Leave

Studies have shown the importance of longerTemplate:Compared to? paid maternity leave and the positive effects it has on a female employee's mental health and return to work. In Sweden, it was shown that the increased flexibility in timing for mothers to return to work decreased the odds of poor mental health reports. In non-western cultures that mostly follow paternalism, lack of knowledge on the benefits of maternity leave impacts the support given to the women during an important time in their life.<ref>Chatrerji, Pinka; Markowitz, Sara (2004). "Does the Length of Maternity Leave Affect Maternal Health?" (PDF). Southern Economic Journal. 72 (1): 16. doi:10.2307/20062092. JSTOR 20062092. S2CID 149917144.</ref>

Society and Laws

Countries that follow paternalism, such as India, allow for women to be treated unjustly. Issues such as child marriage and minor punishments for perpetrators in crimes against women shape society's view on how women should be treated. This can prevent women from feeling comfortable speaking out in personal and professional settings.<ref>Yadav, Jyoti; Singh, Karan (2015). "Gender and Politics of Culture". Political Science: 77.</ref>

Glass Ceilings and Glass Cliffs

Women who work in a very paternalistic culture or industry (e.g. the oil or engineering industry), often deal with limitations in their careers that prevent them from advancing into leadership positions. This may be due to a mentality that insists only males carry leadership characteristics. The term glass cliff refers to undesired projects that are often given to women because they have an increased risk of failure. These undesired projects are given to female employees where they are more likely to fail and leave the organization.<ref>Vinkenberg; Engen; Eagly; Johannesen-Schmidt (2011). "An exploration of stereotypical beliefs about leadership styles: Is transformational leadership a route to women's promotion?" (PDF). The Leadership Quarterly. 22 (1): 10–21. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.003. S2CID 52000092.</ref>

Performance

Some researchers argued that the influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders.<ref>Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes.<ref>Day & Lord, 1988.^{[full citation needed]}^{[need quotation to verify]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} <ref name=Kaiser08>Kaiser, Robert B.; Hogan, Robert; Craig, S. Bartholomew (2008). "Leadership and the fate of organizations". American Psychologist. 63 (2): 96–110. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.2.96. PMID 18284278. Retrieved 21 April 2021. [Abstract:] The authors propose conceptualizing leadership and evaluating leaders in terms of the performance of the team or organization for which they are responsible. The authors next offer a taxonomy of the dependent variables used as criteria in leadership studies. A review of research using this taxonomy suggests that the vast empirical literature on leadership may tell us more about the success of individual managerial careers than the success of these people in leading groups, teams, and organizations. The authors then summarize the evidence showing that leaders do indeed affect the performance of organizations--for better or for worse--and conclude by describing the mechanisms through which they do so.</ref> To facilitate successful leadership performance it is important to understand and accurately measure it.

Job performance generally refers to behavior that contributes to organizational success.<ref>Campbell, 1990^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of them. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance.<ref>Yukl, 2006^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance.<ref name="Kaiser08" group=""></ref> "Leadership performance" may refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While they may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.<ref>

Jung, Dong I.; Sosik, John J. (2002). "Transformational Leadership in Work Groups: The Role of Empowerment, Cohesiveness, and Collective-Efficacy on Perceived Group Performance". Small Group Research. 33 (3): 313–336. doi:10.1177/10496402033003002. ISSN 1046-4964. S2CID 144768241 – via ProQuest.
Saleem, Farida; Zhang, Yingying Zhang; Gopinath, C.; Adeel, Ahmad (2020-01-01). "Impact of Servant Leadership on Performance: The Mediating Role of Affective and Cognitive Trust". SAGE Open. 10 (1): 2158244019900562. doi:10.1177/2158244019900562. ISSN 2158-2440. S2CID 210972626.

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Another way to conceptualize leader performance is to focus on the outcomes of the leader's followers, group, team, unit, or organization. In evaluating this type of leader performance, two general strategies are typically used. The first relies on subjective perceptions of the leader's performance from subordinates, superiors, or occasionally peers or other parties. The other type of effectiveness measures are more objective indicators of follower or unit performance, such as measures of productivity, goal attainment, sales figures, or unit financial performance.
— B.M. Bass & R.E. Riggio<ref>Bass, B. M.; Riggio, R. E., eds. (2006). Transformational Leadership (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 47.</ref>

A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it.<ref>Veldsman, Theo (14 January 2016). "How Toxic Leaders Destroy People as Well as Organisations". The Huffington Post. BuzzFeed, Inc. Retrieved 21 April 2021. In the case of individuals toxic leadership refers to ongoing, deliberate, intentional actions—the 'arrow'—by a leader to undermine the sense of dignity, self-worth and efficacy of an individual—the 'poison'. This results in exploitative, destructive, devaluing and demeaning work experiences. These destructive actions may be physical, psychosocial or even spiritual when they diminish a person's meaning and purpose.</ref>

Measuring leadership

Measuring leadership has proven difficult and complex—even impossible.<ref> Leadership in Action: A Text for U.S. Marine Corps Junior ROTC. Quantico, Virginia: Reserve Liaison and Training Branch, Education Center, Marine Corps Development and Education Command. 1974. p. 36. Retrieved 21 April 2021. It is impossible to measure leadership or judge a leader solely by observation of the leader himself. The real quality of leadership must be judged in relation to the behavior of the group.</ref> Attempts to assess leadership performance via group performance bring in multifarious different factors. Different perceptions of leadership itself may lead to differing measuring methods.<ref> Sells, S. B. (1961). "Abilities and Attributes of Leaders". Military Small Group Performance under Isolation and Stress - An annotated bibliography. Fort Wainwright, Alaska: Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory (U.S.). p. 23. Retrieved 21 April 2021. ...consideration is seldom given to the possibility that different types of leadership or status are measured when different criteria of leadership are used.</ref> Nevertheless, leadership theoreticians have proven perversely reluctant to abandon the vague subjective qualitative popular concept of "leaders".<ref>Instructor's Guide for Introduction to Leadership Development: A Course Outline : Leadership Development. Vol. 3. Fort Benning, Georgia: United States Army Infantry School (published 1977). 1976. p. 7. Retrieved 21 April 2021. ...the inability to uncover any universal leadership traits does not mean that they do not exist.</ref>

Traits

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Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Later studies indicated that leadership is more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual: One such trait or set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. Scholars have found leadership traits of an individual that do not change from situation to situation—traits such as intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6">Howell, Jon P. (2012). Snapshots of Great Leadership. London, GBR: Taylor and Francis. pp. 4–6. ISBN 9780203103210.</ref> However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances.

Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance, and sometimes dominance. People with these traits wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive.

Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits can formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln had the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6"/>

Self-confidence encompasses the traits of high self-esteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and self-assurance. Leaders who are self-confident do not doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions. They also can project this self-confidence onto others, building their trust and commitment.

Integrity is demonstrated in leaders who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive. Leaders with integrity often share these values with their followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. These leaders keep their word and are honest and open with their cohorts.

Sociability describes leaders who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, and adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. Mother Teresa was an exceptional example who embodied integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6"/>

Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, but many have the ability to apply a number of them to succeed.

Ontological-phenomenological model

Template:Organize section Werner Erhard, Michael C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger described leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that was not going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties." In this definition leadership concerns the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that was not going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.<ref>Erhard, Werner; Jensen, Michael C.; Granger, Kari (2011). "Creating Leaders: An Ontological/Phenomenological Model". In Snook, Scott; Nohria, Nitin; Khurana, Rakesh (eds.). The Handbook for Teaching Leadership. Sage Publications.</ref>

Contexts

Organizations

An organization that is established as an instrument or as a means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to by sociologists as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and this is reflected in subdivisions of the organization.<ref>"6.3 Formal Organizations", Sociology, University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing, 2016, retrieved 2021-06-21</ref> Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. The formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's^[specify] model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. This bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.<ref>Gibb, Cecil A. (1970). Leadership (Handbook of Social Psychology). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. pp. 884–89. ISBN 9780140805178. OCLC 174777513.</ref>

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure.<ref>Levi-Sanchez, Suzanne (2018). "Civil Society in an Uncivil State". Journal of International Affairs. 71 (2): 50–72. ISSN 0022-197X. JSTOR 26552329.</ref> The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life—the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.<ref>Mobbs, Dean; Hagan, Cindy C.; Dalgleish, Tim; Silston, Brian; PrÃ©vost, Charlotte (2015-03-18). "The ecology of human fear: survival optimization and the nervous system". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 9: 55. doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00055. ISSN 1662-453X. PMC 4364301. PMID 25852451.</ref> Now humanity spends a major portion of its waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.<ref name="Henry">Henry P. Knowles; Borje O. Saxberg (1971). Personality and Leadership Behavior. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley. pp. 884–89. ISBN 9780140805178. OCLC 118832.</ref><ref>Van Vugt, M.; Hogan, R.; Kaiser, R. (2008). "Leadership, followership, and evolution: Some lessons from the past" (PDF). American Psychologist. 63 (3): 182–196. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.3.182. PMID 18377108. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-04-11.</ref>^{[need quotation to verify]}

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization.<ref>Shaughnessy, Brooke A.; Treadway, Darren C.; Breland, Jacob W.; Perrewé, Pamela L. (2017-02-01). "Informal Leadership Status and Individual Performance: The Roles of Political Skill and Political Will". Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies. 24 (1): 83–94. doi:10.1177/1548051816657983. ISSN 1548-0518. S2CID 147952935.</ref> Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structuresTemplate:Jargon inline. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.<ref name="Henry"/>

A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. In this scenario, leadership is not dependent on title or formal authority.<ref>Elevos,^{[full citation needed]} paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis,^{[full citation needed]} and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar^{[full citation needed]}.</ref>^{[full citation needed]} Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society".<ref>Ogbonnia, 2007^{[full citation needed]}</ref>^{[page needed]}^{[full citation needed]} John Hoyle argues that leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.<ref>Hoyle, John R. (1995). Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press, Inc.</ref> A person who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, they must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially available to them. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in a hierarchy, with commensurate authority.<ref name="Henry"/> Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.<ref>Hakala, David. "The Top 10 Leadership Qualities". HR World. Archived from the original on 2013-04-10.</ref>^{[need quotation to verify]}

Management

The terms "management" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, and management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by charisma, personal relationships, and creativity).<ref name="Burns"/> The role of leader is one in which one can try to deal with trust issues and issues derived from lacking trust.<ref>Sivunen, Anu (2006). "Strengthening Identification with the Team in Virtual Teams: The Leaders' Perspective". Group Decision and Negotiation. 15 (4): 345–366. doi:10.1007/s10726-006-9046-6. ISSN 0926-2644. S2CID 154964294.</ref>

Group

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called shared leadership, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation, and mutual influence among team members.<ref>Carson, Jay B.; Tesluk, Paul E.; Marrone, Jennifer A. (2007). "Shared Leadership in Teams: An Investigation of Antecedent Conditions and Performance". Academy of Management Journal. Academy of Management. 50 (5): 1217–1234. doi:10.5465/amj.2007.20159921. ISSN 0001-4273. S2CID 9385618.</ref> Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.<ref>Ingrid Bens (2006). Facilitating to Lead. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 978-0-7879-7731-3.</ref>

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own inner mentors^{[clarification needed]} to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.<ref>Bart Barthelemy (1997). The Sky Is Not The Limit – Breakthrough Leadership. St. Lucie Press.</ref>

According to the National School Boards Association (U.S.A.), these group leaderships or leadership teams have these specific characteristics:Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Characteristics of a Team

There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.
There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute, and to learn from and work with others.
The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.

Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams

Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in accomplishing its mission and goals.
Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals.
Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more skillful member to do a certain task.
Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal growth.
Personal traits: Members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.
Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one in the groups.
Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward to this time together.
Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this equally and proudly.
Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken advantage of by team members.

Self-leadership

Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Self-leadership is having a developed sense of who you are, what you can achieve, and what are your goals are, coupled with the ability to affect your emotions, behaviors, and communication. At the center of leadership is the person who is motivated to make the difference. Self-leadership is a way toward more effectively leading other people.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

Biology and evolution of leadership

Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In one study, van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> This position is contentious.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Many animals apart from apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we mustTemplate:Editorializing examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (which are likewise matriarchal), sheep (which "follow" in some sense castrated bellwethers), and many others.

By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male of the land. Bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or with its reputation as a "hippie chimp".<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". </ref>)

Myths

Leadership has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership interfere with people's conception of what leadership is about.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

Leadership is innate

According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive dispositional characteristics present at birth (e.g., extraversion, intelligence, or ingenuity). However, evidence shows that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.<ref name=Forsyth>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> Thus, effective leadership can result from nature (i.e., innate talents) as well as nurture (i.e., acquired skills).

Leadership is possessing power over others

Although leadership is certainly a form of power, it is not demarcated by power over people. Rather, it is a power with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers.<ref name=Forsyth/> Despite popular belief, the use of manipulation, coercion, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. People who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders.

Leaders are positively influential

The validity of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, the bystander effect (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> Moreover, group performance,<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> creativity,<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> and efficiency<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs.

The difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including their own followers. Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

Leaders entirely control group outcomes

In Western cultures it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". This romanticized view of leadership—the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes—ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> For example, group cohesion, communication patterns, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as behavioral norms and established standards influence group functionality. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements.

All groups have a designated leader

Not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women,<ref name=SBA>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,<ref name=guastello>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a diffusion of responsibility, in which leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members.<ref name="SBA" group=""></ref>^{<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".}<ref name="guastello" group=""></ref>^{<span title="Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".">: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".}

Group members resist leaders

Group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance andLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". overall group strength.<ref name=Forsyth/> Most people prefer to be led than to be without a leader.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

Action-oriented environments

One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. Some examples of action-oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

Leadership of small groups is often created to respond to a situation or critical incident. In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup ("action environments"). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of leaders in front-line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment.

Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized IT teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands-on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought-out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home-base decision-makers. Early adoption of Scrum and Kanban branch development methodologies helped to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on trunk based developmentTemplate:Jargon inline. This method of just-in-time action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules, satisfying the clients' needs to rapidly patch production environment bugs.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>Template:Importance inline

Critical thought

Carlyle's 1840 "Great Man theory", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition (from Herbert Spencer, Leo Tolstoy, and others) in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Karl Popper noted in 1945 that leaders can mislead and make mistakes—he warns against deferring to "great men".<ref> Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". </ref>

Noam Chomsky<ref>{{multiref2 |1=Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". |2=Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". </ref> and others<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> have subjected the concept of leadership to critical thinking and assert that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question subjection to a will or intellect other than one's own if the leader is not a subject-matter expert.

Concepts such as autogestion, employeeship, and common civic virtue, challenge the fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle by stressing individual responsibility and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out "leadership" as the basis of a special class of individuals.

Similarly, various historical calamities (such as World War II) can be attributed<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref> to a misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership as exhibited in dictatorship.

The idea of leaderism paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.<ref>Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".</ref>

References

Citations

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Other Sources

Books

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Journal articles

Ahlquist, John S.; Levi, Margaret (2011). "Leadership: What It Means, What It Does, and What We Want to Know About It". Annual Review of Political Science. 14 (1): 1–24
Avolio, Bruce J.; Walumbwa, Fred O.; Weber, Todd J. (2009). "Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions". Annual Review of Psychology. 60 (1): 421–449.
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Hadley Cantril (1958) "Effective democratic leadership: a psychological interpretation", Journal of Individual Psychology 14: 128–38, and pages 139–49 in Psychology, Humanism and Scientific Inquiry (1988) edited by Albert H. Cantril, Transaction Books.

External links

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The dictionary definition of Leadership at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Leadership at Wikiquote

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Leadership

Historical views

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All groups have a designated leader

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