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...ed by [[Hermann Minkowski]] (1908)<ref name=Minkowski1>{{cite journal|last=Minkowski|first=H.|year=1908|title=Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen V ...cite journal|last=Abraham|first=M.|year=1910|title=Sull'Elletrodinamica di Minkowski|journal=[[Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo]]|volume=30|pages=33 ...

...tensor]] formulation of [[special relativity]] was introduced by [[Hermann Minkowski]]. The tensor allows related physical laws to be written very concisely, an ...orm|differential 2-form]]—that is, an antisymmetric rank-2 tensor field—on Minkowski space. In component form, ...

...nt of tensors]] and [[Einstein summation convention]] throughout and the [[Minkowski metric]] has the form {{math|diag(+1, −1, −1, −1)}}. Where the equations ar ...{nowrap|(+ − − −)}}, corresponding to the [[Minkowski space#Standard basis|Minkowski metric tensor]]: ...

...n the 19th century. Time is used as [[Spacetime|fourth dimension]] as in [[Minkowski space]], so spherical wave transformations are connected to the [[Lorentz t ...[[Gustav Herglotz]] (1909).<ref group=M>Herglotz (1909)</ref> Namely, the Minkowski metric corresponds to the above Cayley metric (based on a real conic sectio ...

...e, [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]], and [[Émile Clapeyron]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] arrived at conclusions similar to Grove's and published his ...reference frame]]. Also conserved is the vector length ([[Minkowski space|Minkowski norm]]), which is the [[rest mass]] for single particles, and the [[invaria ...

...D calculation, contains a factor ''g''_μν corresponding to the [[Minkowski metric]]. An expansion of this factor as a sum over photon polarizations i It is named after [[Hermann Weyl]]. It eliminates the negative-norm [[Ghost (physics)|ghost]], lacks m ...

...imensions of space into a single four-dimensional continuum now known as [[Minkowski space]]. This interpretation proved vital to the [[General relativity|gener | image4 = Hermann Minkowski Portrait.jpg|width4=813|height4=1093 ...

...ve propagation as did [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] somewhat later. Kirchhoff and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of [[Gaussian d ...nal surface defined by {{math|1=''g''('''x''') = 0}} with respect to the [[Minkowski content]] measure. This is known as a ''simple layer'' integral. ...

...orentz transformation]] {{math|('''r''', ''t'') → Λ('''r''', ''t'')}} in [[Minkowski space]], all one-particle quantum states {{math|''ψ_σ''}} locally ...algebra]], and have a connection to the components of the flat spacetime [[Minkowski metric]] {{math|''η^αβ''}} in the anticommutation relation: ...

| [[Relativistic Doppler effect|Relativistic Doppler]]|| [[Minkowski space]]<br />(flat spacetime) || ...first measurements of the [[rotation]] rates of [[planet]]s,<ref>In 1871 [[Hermann Carl Vogel]] measured the rotation rate of [[Venus]]. [[Vesto Slipher]] was ...

Faraday, [[Wilhelm Eduard Weber|Weber]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz]], [[William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] and others ...ving that there would always be some resistance). [[Walther Nernst|Walther Hermann Nernst]] developed the [[third law of thermodynamics]] and stated that abso ...